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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">WESD</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Wind Energy Science Discussions</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">WESD</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2366-7621</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name></publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/wes-2026-46</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>Computational aerodynamics for soft-wing kite design</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Poland</surname>
<given-names>Jelle Agatho Wilhelm</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3164-5648</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Masure</surname>
<given-names>Kasper Raphaël G.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Cayon</surname>
<given-names>Oriol</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2065-8673</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Schmehl</surname>
<given-names>Roland</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4112-841X</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Kluyverweg 1, 2629 HS, Delft, the Netherlands</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>26</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>2026</volume>
<fpage>1</fpage>
<lpage>47</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Jelle Agatho Wilhelm Poland et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://wes.copernicus.org/preprints/wes-2026-46/">This article is available from https://wes.copernicus.org/preprints/wes-2026-46/</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://wes.copernicus.org/preprints/wes-2026-46/wes-2026-46.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://wes.copernicus.org/preprints/wes-2026-46/wes-2026-46.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>Soft-wing kites are morphing, bridled, tensile lifting surfaces used for wind-assisted ship propulsion and airborne wind energy applications. Their swept-back planform, pronounced anhedral, and unconventional leading-edge geometry induce complex aerodynamic behaviour that challenges conventional modelling approaches. For leading-edge inflatable (LEI) kites, pressure-side separation induced by the inflated tubular leading edge renders classical inviscid methods insufficient, thereby necessitating sectional input from higher-fidelity approaches. This study presents and applies a computationally efficient aerodynamic framework to an LEI kite by coupling a vortex step method (VSM) with RANS-derived airfoil polars validated against wind-tunnel measurements. The RANS simulations were used to train a machine-learning surrogate model to facilitate parametric design studies. Applying machine learning to LEI kite aerodynamics is novel, and it achieves &lt;em&gt;R&lt;/em&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;gt; 0.98 across the considered parameter space. Three-dimensional load predictions for the TU Delft V3 LEI kite were evaluated against wind-tunnel data and reference three-dimensional RANS simulations. Within the operational incidence range &amp;alpha; &amp;isin; [&amp;minus;1,10]&amp;deg;, the predicted lift and drag agree with measurements to within 9 % and 13 %, respectively. Across this range, the framework reproduces the measured aerodynamic trends more consistently than the reference three-dimensional RANS results, while reducing the computational cost by several orders of magnitude. A rigid-body stability analysis indicated static stability in roll, pitch, and yaw, but limited aerodynamic damping within the quasi-steady model. Parametric analyses revealed inherent trade-offs between aerodynamic efficiency and stability, motivating the adoption of multi-objective optimisation strategies. The validated framework provides high predictive accuracy at low computational cost and forms a foundation for rapid aerodynamic analysis, stability assessment, design optimisation, and aero-structural coupling in the conceptual and preliminary design phases.</p>
</abstract>
<counts><page-count count="47"/></counts>
<funding-group>
<award-group id="gs1">
<funding-source>Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek</funding-source>
<award-id>17628</award-id>
</award-group>
<award-group id="gs2">
<funding-source>Horizon 2020</funding-source>
<award-id>101084216</award-id>
</award-group>
</funding-group>
</article-meta>
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