Articles | Volume 9, issue 6
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1323-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1323-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Swinging motion of a kite with suspended control unit flying turning manoeuvres
Mark Schelbergen
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, 2629 HS Delft, the Netherlands
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, 2629 HS Delft, the Netherlands
Related authors
Mark Schelbergen, Peter C. Kalverla, Roland Schmehl, and Simon J. Watson
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1097–1120, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1097-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1097-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We have presented a methodology for including multiple wind profile shapes in a wind resource description that are identified using a data-driven approach. These shapes go beyond the height range for which conventional wind profile relationships are developed. Moreover, they include non-monotonic shapes such as low-level jets. We demonstrated this methodology for an on- and offshore reference location using DOWA data and efficiently estimated the annual energy production of a pumping AWE system.
Dylan Eijkelhof, Nicola Rossi, and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-139, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-139, 2024
Preprint under review for WES
Short summary
Short summary
This study compares circular and figure-of-eight flight shapes for flying kite wind energy systems, assessing power output, stability, and system lifespan. Results show that circular patterns are ideal for maximizing energy in compact areas, while figure-of-eight paths, especially flying up in the centre of the figure, deliver smoother, more consistent power and have a longer expected kite lifespan. These findings offer valuable insights to enhance design and performance of kite systems.
Christoph Elfert, Dietmar Göhlich, and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 2261–2282, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2261-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2261-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This article presents a tow test procedure for measuring the steering behaviour of tethered membrane wings. The experimental set-up includes a novel onboard sensor system for measuring the position and orientation of the towed wing, complemented by an attached low-cost multi-hole probe for measuring the relative flow velocity vector at the wing. The measured data (steering gain and dead time) can be used to improve kite models and simulate the operation of airborne wind energy systems.
Rishikesh Joshi, Dominic von Terzi, and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-161, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-161, 2024
Preprint under review for WES
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents a methodology for system design of airborne wind energy (AWE). A multi-disciplinary design, analysis, and optimization (MDAO) framework was developed, integrating power, energy production, and cost models for fixed-wing ground-generation (GG) AWE systems. Using the levelized cost of electricity (LCoE) as the design objective, we found that the optimal size of systems lies between the rated power of 100 kW and 1000 kW.
Rishikesh Joshi, Roland Schmehl, and Michiel Kruijff
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 2195–2215, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2195-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2195-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents a fast cycle–power computation model for fixed-wing ground-generation airborne wind energy systems. It is suitable for sensitivity and scalability studies, which makes it a valuable tool for design and innovation trade-offs. It is also suitable for integration with cost models and systems engineering tools, enhancing its applicability in assessing the potential of airborne wind energy in the broader energy system.
Helena Schmidt, Renatto M. Yupa-Villanueva, Daniele Ragni, Roberto Merino-Martínez, Piet van Gool, and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-125, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-125, 2024
Preprint under review for WES
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigates noise annoyance caused by airborne wind energy systems (AWESs), a novel wind energy technology that uses kites to harness high-altitude winds. Through a listening experiment with 75 participants, sharpness was identified as the key factor predicting annoyance. Fixed-wing kites generated more annoyance than soft-wing kites, likely due to their sharper, more tonal sound. The findings can help improve AWESs’ designs, reducing noise-related disturbances for nearby residents.
Maaike Sickler, Bart Ummels, Michiel Zaaijer, Roland Schmehl, and Katherine Dykes
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1225–1233, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1225-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1225-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This paper investigates the effect of wind farm layout on the performance of offshore wind farms. A regular farm layout is compared to optimised irregular layouts. The irregular layouts have higher annual energy production, and the power production is less sensitive to wind direction. However, turbine towers require thicker walls to counteract increased fatigue due to increased turbulence levels in the farm. The study shows that layout optimisation can be used to maintain high-yield performance.
Mark Schelbergen, Peter C. Kalverla, Roland Schmehl, and Simon J. Watson
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1097–1120, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1097-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1097-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We have presented a methodology for including multiple wind profile shapes in a wind resource description that are identified using a data-driven approach. These shapes go beyond the height range for which conventional wind profile relationships are developed. Moreover, they include non-monotonic shapes such as low-level jets. We demonstrated this methodology for an on- and offshore reference location using DOWA data and efficiently estimated the annual energy production of a pumping AWE system.
Jan Hummel, Dietmar Göhlich, and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 41–55, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-41-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-41-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We describe a tow test setup for the reproducible measurement of aerodynamic, structural dynamic and flight dynamic properties of tethered membrane wings. The test procedure is based on repeatable automated maneuvers with the entire kite system under realistic conditions. The developed measurement method can be used to quantitatively compare different wing designs, to validate and improve simulation models, and to systematically improve kite designs.
Johannes Oehler and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 1–21, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-1-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-1-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We present an experimental method for aerodynamic characterization of flexible membrane kites by in situ measurement of the relative flow, while performing complex flight maneuvers. We find that the aerodynamics of this type of wing depend not only on the angle of attack, but also on the level of aerodynamic loading and the aeroelastic deformation. We recommend using the relative power setting of the kite as a secondary influencing parameter.
Tarek N. Dief, Uwe Fechner, Roland Schmehl, Shigeo Yoshida, Amr M. M. Ismaiel, and Amr M. Halawa
Wind Energ. Sci., 3, 275–291, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-275-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-275-2018, 2018
Related subject area
Thematic area: Wind technologies | Topic: Airborne technology
Measurement of the turning behaviour of tethered membrane wings using automated flight manoeuvres
Power curve modelling and scaling of fixed-wing ground-generation airborne wind energy systems
Dynamic analysis of the tensegrity structure of a rotary airborne wind energy machine
Wake characteristics of a balloon wind turbine and aerodynamic analysis of its balloon using a large eddy simulation and actuator disk model
Refining the airborne wind energy system power equations with a vortex wake model
Impact of wind profiles on ground-generation airborne wind energy system performance
Flight trajectory optimization of Fly-Gen airborne wind energy systems through a harmonic balance method
Scaling effects of fixed-wing ground-generation airborne wind energy systems
Parameter analysis of a multi-element airfoil for application to airborne wind energy
Christoph Elfert, Dietmar Göhlich, and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 2261–2282, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2261-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2261-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This article presents a tow test procedure for measuring the steering behaviour of tethered membrane wings. The experimental set-up includes a novel onboard sensor system for measuring the position and orientation of the towed wing, complemented by an attached low-cost multi-hole probe for measuring the relative flow velocity vector at the wing. The measured data (steering gain and dead time) can be used to improve kite models and simulate the operation of airborne wind energy systems.
Rishikesh Joshi, Roland Schmehl, and Michiel Kruijff
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 2195–2215, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2195-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2195-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents a fast cycle–power computation model for fixed-wing ground-generation airborne wind energy systems. It is suitable for sensitivity and scalability studies, which makes it a valuable tool for design and innovation trade-offs. It is also suitable for integration with cost models and systems engineering tools, enhancing its applicability in assessing the potential of airborne wind energy in the broader energy system.
Gonzalo Sánchez-Arriaga, Álvaro Cerrillo-Vacas, Daniel Unterweger, and Christof Beaupoil
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1273–1287, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1273-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1273-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Rotary airborne wind energy (RAWE) machines transform wind energy into electric energy by transmitting the mechanical torque produced on a rotor to a generator on the ground by using its own structure, which is a spinning helix. Having a good understanding of the behavior of the helix is crucial in the design of RAWE machines. This work presents a theoretical model to simulate the helix’s dynamics and experimental tests to characterize it.
Aref Ehteshami and Mostafa Varmazyar
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1771–1793, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1771-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1771-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper, we numerically studied the wake characteristics and aerodynamics of a balloon wind turbine, an airborne system operating at altitudes of about 400–1000 m. The system can benefit from a stronger and steady wind flow at these altitudes. Results contribute to the wake structure and the magnitude of aerodynamic loads on the balloon in varying wind conditions at high altitudes. Findings are valuable in designing future optimized wind farms and control systems for balloon wind turbines.
Filippo Trevisi, Carlo E. D. Riboldi, and Alessandro Croce
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1639–1650, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1639-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1639-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The power equations of crosswind Ground-Gen and Fly-Gen airborne wind energy systems (AWESs) are refined to include the contribution from the aerodynamic wake. A novel power coefficient is defined by normalizing the aerodynamic power with the wind power passing through a disk with a radius equal to the AWES wingspan, allowing us to compare systems with different wingspans. Ground-Gen and Fly-Gen AWESs are compared in terms of their aerodynamic power potential.
Markus Sommerfeld, Martin Dörenkämper, Jochem De Schutter, and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1153–1178, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1153-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1153-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigates the performance of pumping-mode ground-generation airborne wind energy systems by determining power-optimal flight trajectories based on realistic, k-means clustered, vertical wind velocity profiles. These profiles, derived from mesoscale weather simulations at an offshore and an onshore site in Europe, are incorporated into an optimal control model that maximizes average cycle power by optimizing the kite's trajectory.
Filippo Trevisi, Iván Castro-Fernández, Gregorio Pasquinelli, Carlo Emanuele Dionigi Riboldi, and Alessandro Croce
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2039–2058, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2039-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2039-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The optimal control problem for the flight trajectories of Fly-Gen AWESs is expressed with a novel methodology in the frequency domain through a harmonic balance formulation. The solution gives the optimal trajectory and the optimal control inputs. Optimal trajectories have a circular shape squashed along the vertical direction, and the optimal control inputs can be modeled with only one or two harmonics. Analytical approximations for optimal trajectory characteristics are also given.
Markus Sommerfeld, Martin Dörenkämper, Jochem De Schutter, and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1847–1868, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1847-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1847-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This research explores the ground-generation airborne wind energy system (AWES) design space and investigates scaling effects by varying design parameters such as aircraft wing size, aerodynamic efficiency and mass. Therefore, representative simulated onshore and offshore wind data are implemented into an AWES trajectory optimization model. We estimate optimal annual energy production and capacity factors as well as a minimal operational lift-to-weight ratio.
Gianluca De Fezza and Sarah Barber
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1627–1640, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1627-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1627-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
As part of a master's thesis, this study analysed the aerodynamic performance of a multi-element airfoil using numerical flow simulations. The results show that these types of airfoil are very suitable for an upcoming wind energy generation concept. The parametric study of the wing led to a significant improvement of up to 46.6 % compared to the baseline design. The increased power output of the energy generation concept contributes substantially to today's energy transition.
Cited articles
Andersson, J. A. E., Gillis, J., Horn, G., Rawlings, J. B., and Diehl, M.: CasADi – A software framework for nonlinear optimization and optimal control, Mathematical Programming Computation, 11, 1–36, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12532-018-0139-4, 2019. a
Borobia, R., Sanchez-Arriaga, G., Serino, A., and Schmehl, R.: Flight-Path Reconstruction and Flight Test of Four-Line Power Kites, J. Guid. Control, 41, 2604–2614, https://doi.org/10.2514/1.G003581, 2018. a
Bosch, A., Schmehl, R., Tiso, P., and Rixen, D.: Nonlinear Aeroelasticity, Flight Dynamics and Control of a Flexible Membrane Traction Kite, in: Airborne Wind Energy, edited by: Ahrens, U., Diehl, M., and Schmehl, R., Green Energy and Technology, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, Chap. 17, 307–323, ISBN 978-3-642-39964-0, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39965-7_17, 2013. a
Breukels, J., Schmehl, R., and Ockels, W.: Aeroelastic Simulation of Flexible Membrane Wings based on Multibody System Dynamics, in: Airborne Wind Energy, edited by: Ahrens, U., Diehl, M., and Schmehl, R., Green Energy and Technology, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, Chap. 16, 287–305, ISBN 978-3-642-39964-0, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39965-7_16, 2013. a
Cayon, O., Gaunaa, M., and Schmehl, R.: Fast Aero-Structural Model of a Leading-Edge Inflatable Kite, Energies, 16, 3061, https://doi.org/10.3390/en16073061, 2023. a
Duport, C.: Modeling with consideration of the fluid-structure interaction of the behavior under load of a kite for auxiliary traction of ships, PhD thesis, ENSTA Bretagne, https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-02383312 (last access: 4 April 2024), 2018. a
Fagiano, L., Quack, M., Bauer, F., Carnel, L., and Oland, E.: Autonomous Airborne Wind Energy Systems: Accomplishments and Challenges, Annual Review of Control, Robotics, and Autonomous Systems, 5, 603–631, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-control-042820-124658, 2022. a
Fechner, U., van der Vlugt, R., Schreuder, E., and Schmehl, R.: Dynamic Model of a Pumping Kite Power System, Renew. Energ., 83, 705–716, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.04.028, 2015. a, b, c
Folkersma, M. A. M.: Aeroelasticity of Membrane Kites: Airborne Wind Energy Applications, PhD thesis, Delft University of Technology, Delft, https://doi.org/10.4233/uuid:eae39f5a-49bc-438b-948f-b6ab51208068, 2022. a
Geschiere, N.: Dynamic modelling of a flexible kite for power generation, Master's thesis, Delft University of Technology, http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:6478003a-3c77-40ce-862e-24579dcd1eab (last access: 4 April 2024), 2014. a
Gohl, F. and Luchsinger, R. H.: Simulation based wing design for kite power, in: Airborne Wind Energy, edited by: Ahrens, U., Diehl, M., and Schmehl, R., Green Energy and Technology, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, Chap. 18, 325–338, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39965-7_18, 2013. a
Loyd, M. L.: Crosswind kite power, J. Energy, 4, 106–111, https://doi.org/10.2514/3.48021, 1980. a
Oehler, J. and Schmehl, R.: Aerodynamic characterization of a soft kite by in situ flow measurement, Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 1–21, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-1-2019, 2019. a, b, c
Oehler, J., van Reijen, M., and Schmehl, R.: Experimental Investigation of Soft Kite Performance During Turning Maneuvers, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 1037, 052004, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1037/5/052004, 2018. a
Peschel, J., Breuer, J., and Schmehl, R.: Kitepower – Commercializing a 100 kW Mobile Wind Energy System, in: Book of Abstracts of the International Airborne Wind Energy Conference (AWEC 2017), edited by: Diehl, M., Leuthold, R., and Schmehl, R., 47–51, University of Freiburg | Delft University of Technology, Freiburg, Germany, http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:9e9a6bdb-f5f4-4868-bed6-f25dc5ee42f0 (last access: 4 April 2024), 2017. a
Poland, J. A. W. and Schmehl, R.: Modelling Aero-Structural Deformation of Flexible Membrane Kites, Energies, 16, 5264, https://doi.org/10.3390/en16145264, 2023. a
Rapp, S., Schmehl, R., Oland, E., and Haas, T.: Cascaded Pumping Cycle Control for Rigid Wing Airborne Wind Energy Systems, J. Guid. Control Dynam., 42, 2456–2473, https://doi.org/10.2514/1.G004246, 2019. a
Roullier, A.: Experimental analysis of a kite system’s dynamics, Master's thesis, EPFL, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7752407, 2020. a
Salma, V., Friedl, F., and Schmehl, R.: Reliability and Safety of Airborne Wind Energy Systems, Wind Energy, 23, 340–356, https://doi.org/10.1002/we.2433, 2019. a
Sánchez-Arriaga, G., Pastor-Rodríguez, A., Sanjurjo-Rivo, M., and Schmehl, R.: A lagrangian flight simulator for airborne wind energy systems, Appl. Math. Model., 69, 665–684, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apm.2018.12.016, 2019. a
Schelbergen, M.: Swinging Motion of a Kite with Suspended Control Unit Flying Turning Manoeuvres, 4TU.ResearchData [code], https://doi.org/10.4121/e08cd09a-bad8-48c5-b6cb-66f90ac467c3, 2024. a
Schelbergen, M. and Schmehl, R.: Validation of the quasi-steady performance model for pumping airborne wind energy systems, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 1618, 032003, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1618/3/032003, 2020. a
Schelbergen, M., Schmehl, R., Buchholz, B., Breuer, J., and Peschel, J.: Kitepower flight data acquired on 8 October 2019, 4TU.Centre for Research Data [data set], https://doi.org/10.4121/19376174, 2024. a, b
Schmehl, R. and Oehler, J.: 25 m2 LEI V3 tube kite transitioning to traction phase and starting to fly figure eight manoeuvres. Video footage of onboard camera, Copernicus Publications, TIB [video], https://doi.org/10.5446/37583, 2018. a
Thedens, P.: An Integrated Aero-Structural Model for Ram-Air Kite Simulations With Application to Airborne Wind Energy, PhD thesis, Delft University of Technology, Delft, https://doi.org/10.4233/uuid:16e90401-62fc-4bc3-bf04-7a8c7bb0e2ee, 2022. a
Vermillion, C., Cobb, M., Fagiano, L., Leuthold, R., Diehl, M., Smith, R. S., Wood, T. A., Rapp, S., Schmehl, R., Olinger, D., and Demetriou, M.: Electricity in the Air: Insights From Two Decades of Advanced Control Research and Experimental Flight Testing of Airborne Wind Energy Systems, Annu. Rev. Control, 52, 330–357, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcontrol.2021.03.002, 2021. a
Williams, P., Lansdorp, B., and Ockels, W. J.: Modeling and Control of a Kite on a Variable Length Flexible Inelastic Tether, in: Proceedings of the AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies Conference and Exhibit, Hilton Head, SC, USA, https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2007-6705, 2007. a
Zanon, M., Gros, S., Andersson, J., and Diehl, M.: Airborne Wind Energy Based on Dual Airfoils, IEEE T. Contr. Syst. T., 21, 1215–1222, https://doi.org/10.1109/TCST.2013.2257781, 2013. a, b, c
Short summary
We present a novel two-point model of a kite with a suspended control unit to describe the characteristic swinging motion of this assembly during turning manoeuvres. Quasi-steady and dynamic model variants are combined with a discretised tether model, and simulation results are compared with measurement data of an instrumented kite system. By resolving the pitch of the kite, the model allows for computing the angle of attack, which is essential for estimating the generated aerodynamic forces.
We present a novel two-point model of a kite with a suspended control unit to describe the...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint