Articles | Volume 9, issue 3
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-533-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-533-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Review article
| 
12 Mar 2024
Review article |
| 12 Mar 2024
| 12 Mar 2024
A critical review of challenges and opportunities for the design and operation of offshore structures supporting renewable hydrogen production, storage, and transport
Claudio Alexis Rodríguez Castillo
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Department of Naval Architecture, Ocean & Marine Engineering, University of Strathclyde, 100 Montrose Street, Glasgow G4 0LZ, United Kingdom
Baran Yeter
Department of Naval Architecture, Ocean & Marine Engineering, University of Strathclyde, 100 Montrose Street, Glasgow G4 0LZ, United Kingdom
Shen Li
Department of Naval Architecture, Ocean & Marine Engineering, University of Strathclyde, 100 Montrose Street, Glasgow G4 0LZ, United Kingdom
Feargal Brennan
Department of Naval Architecture, Ocean & Marine Engineering, University of Strathclyde, 100 Montrose Street, Glasgow G4 0LZ, United Kingdom
Maurizio Collu
Department of Naval Architecture, Ocean & Marine Engineering, University of Strathclyde, 100 Montrose Street, Glasgow G4 0LZ, United Kingdom
Related authors
No articles found.
Katarzyna Patryniak, Maurizio Collu, Jason Jonkman, Matthew Hall, Garrett Barter, Daniel Zalkind, and Andrea Coraddu
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 2051–2077, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-2051-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-2051-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This paper studies the instantaneous centre of rotation (ICR) of floating offshore wind turbines (FOWTs). We present a method for computing the ICR and examine the correlations between the external loading, design features, ICR statistics, motions, and loads. We demonstrate how to apply the new insights to successfully modify the designs of the spar and semisubmersible FOWTs to reduce the loads in the moorings, the tower, and the blades, improving the ultimate strength and fatigue properties.
Adebayo Ojo, Maurizio Collu, and Andrea Coraddu
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-96, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-96, 2023
Revised manuscript not accepted
Short summary
Short summary
This is a nouvelle work conducted to aid the expedition of the Floating Offshore Wind Turbine (FOWT) technology to be as commercially viable as the fixed bottom foundation counterpart. This work is focused on the shape alteration of the FOWT platform within an optimization framework to reduce the cost of material for manufacturing the platforms; therefore, reducing the levelized cost of energy. This study also shows economics of scale further reduces the LCOE when the farm's size is increased.
Mareike Leimeister, Maurizio Collu, and Athanasios Kolios
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 259–281, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-259-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-259-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Floating offshore wind technology has high potential but still faces challenges for gaining economic competitiveness to allow commercial market uptake. Hence, design optimization plays a key role; however, the final optimum floater obtained highly depends on the specified optimization problem. Thus, by considering alternative structural realization approaches, not very stringent limitations on the structure and dimensions are required. This way, more innovative floater designs can be captured.
Peyman Amirafshari, Feargal Brennan, and Athanasios Kolios
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 677–699, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-677-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-677-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
One particular problem with structures operating in seas is the so-called fatigue phenomenon. Cyclic loads imposed by waves and winds can cause structural failure after a number of cycles. Traditional methods have some limitations.
This paper presents a developed design framework based on fracture mechanics for offshore wind turbine support structures which enables design engineers to maximise the use of available inspection capabilities and optimise the design and inspection, simultaneously.
Cited articles
12toZero: HyFloat patented design combines buoyancy & storage in one foundation for the most reliable & cost-effective floating hydrogen supply: https://www.12tozero.com/why-hyfloat/, last access: 20 Dezember 2023.
ABS: Guide for Fatigue Assessment Of Offshore Structures, American Bureau of Shipping, https://ww2.eagle.org/en/rules-and-resources/rules-and-guides.html?q=offshore (last access: 20 September 2022), 2020.
Adedipe, O., Brennan, F., Mehmanparast, A., Kolios, A., and Tavares, I.: Corrosion fatigue crack growth mechanisms in offshore monopile steel weldments, Fatigue Fract. Eng. M., 40, 1868–1881, https://doi.org/10.1111/ffe.12606, 2017.
Alexander, W.: A Low Specific Mass, Free Floating Wind Energy Concept up to 40 MW, Proceedings of the ASME 2019 2nd International Offshore Wind Technical Conference, ASME 2019 2nd International Offshore Wind Technical Conference, St. Julian’s, Malta, 3–6 November 2019, V001T01A015, ASME, https://doi.org/10.1115/IOWTC2019-7590, 2019.
Amirafshari, P., Brennan, F., and Kolios, A.: A fracture mechanics framework for optimising design and inspection of offshore wind turbine support structures against fatigue failure, Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 677–699, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-677-2021, 2021.
Antoniadou, I., Dervilis, N., Papatheou, E., Maguire, A. E., and Worden, K.: Aspects of structural health and condition monitoring of offshore wind turbines, Philos. T. R. Soc. A, 373, 2014.0075, 2015.
API: Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms – Load and Resistance Factor Design (API RP 2ALRFD), https://www.api.org/products-and-services/standards/digital-catalog (last access: 4 March 2024), 2019.
Apostolou, D. and Enevoldsen, P.: The past, present and potential of hydrogen as a multifunctional storage application for wind power, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 112, 917–929, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.06.049, 2019.
Arany, L., Bhattacharya, S., Macdonald, J., and Hogan, S.: Accuracy of frequency domain fatigue damage estimation methods for offshore wind turbine support structures, in: Vulnerability, Uncertainty, and Risk: Quantification, Mitigation, and Management, 1293–1302, https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784413609.130, 2014.
Asim, T., Islam, S. Z., Hemmati, A., and Khalid, M. S. U.: A Review of Recent Advancements in Offshore Wind Turbine Technology, Energies, 15, 579, https://doi.org/10.3390/en15020579, 2022.
Babarit, A., Gilloteaux, J.-C., Clodic, G., Duchet, M., Simoneau, A., and Platzer, M. F.: Techno-economic feasibility of fleets of far offshore hydrogen-producing wind energy converters, Int. J. Hydrogen Energ., 43, 7266–7289, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.02.144, 2018.
Babarit, A., Body, E., Gilloteaux, J.-C., and Hétet, J.-F.: Energy and economic performance of the FARWIND energy system for sustainable fuel production from the far-offshore wind energy resource, 2019 Fourteenth International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER), Monte-Carlo, Monaco, 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1109/EVER.2019.8813563, 2019.
Bashetty, S. and Ozcelik, S.: Review on Dynamics of Offshore Floating Wind Turbine Platforms, Energies, 14, 6026, https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196026, 2021.
Berg, T. L., Apostolou, D., and Enevoldsen, P.: Analysis of the wind energy market in Denmark and future interactions with an emerging hydrogen market, Int. J. Hydrogen Energ., 46, 146–156, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.09.166, 2021.
Birol, F.: The future of hydrogen: seizing today's opportunities, IEA Report prepared for the G20, https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-hydrogen (last access: 4 March 2024), 2019.
Black, A. R., Mathiesen, T., and Hilbert, L. R.: Corrosion protection of offshore wind foundations, NACE International, Houston, TX, USA, ISBN 5896 2015 CP, https://store.ampp.org/corrosion-protection-of-offshore-wind-foundations (last access: 4 March 2024), 2015.
Blanco-Fernández, P. and Pérez-Arribas, F.: Offshore Facilities to Produce Hydrogen, Energies, 10, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.3390/en10060783, 2017.
Bonacina, C. N., Gaskare, N. B., and Valenti, G.: Assessment of offshore liquid hydrogen production from wind power for ship refueling, Int. J. Hydrogen Energ., 47, 1279–1291, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.10.043, 2022.
Boscaino, V., Cipriani, G., Curto, D., Di Dio, V., Franzitta, V., Trapanese, M., and Viola, A.: A small scale prototype of a wave energy conversion system for hydrogen production, IECON 2015 – 41st Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, 9–12 November 2015, 003591-003596, https://doi.org/10.1109/IECON.2015.7392658, 2015.
Brennan, F.: Risk Based Maintenance for Offshore Wind Structures, Proc. CIRP, 11, 296–300, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2013.07.021, 2013.
Buttler, A. and Spliethoff, H.: Current status of water electrolysis for energy storage, grid balancing and sector coupling via power-to-gas and power-to-liquids: A review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 82, 2440–2454, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.003, 2018.
Caglayan, D. G., Heinrichs, H. U., Linssen, J., Robinius, M., and Stolten, D.: Impact of different weather years on the design of hydrogen supply pathways for transport needs, Int. J. Hydrogen Energ., 44, 25442–25456, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.08.032, 2019.
Caine, D., Wahyuni, W., Pizii, B., Iliffe, M., Whitlock, Z., Ryan, B., and Bond, L.: ERM Dolphyn Hydrogen: Phase 2 – Final Report, Environmental Resources Management (ERM), 106, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/61f953e08fa8f53894502152/Phase_2_Report_-_ERM_-_Dolphyn.pdf (last access: 4 March 2024), 2021.
Chen, B., Soares, C. G., and Videiro, P.: Review of digital twin of ships and offshore structures, in: Developments in Maritime Technology and Engineering, CRC Press, 445–451, https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003216582-50, 2021.
Clodic, G., Babarit, A., and Gilloteaux, J.-C.: Wind propulsion options for energy ships, Proceedings of the ASME 2018 1st International Offshore Wind Technical Conference, ASME 2018 1st International Offshore Wind Technical Conference, San Francisco, California, USA, 4–7 November 2018, V001T01A002, ASME, https://doi.org/10.1115/IOWTC2018-1056, 2018.
Colucci, A., Boscaino, V., Cipriani, G., Curto, D., Di Dio, V., Franzitta, V., Trapanese, M., and Viola, A.: An inertial system for the production of electricity and hydrogen from sea wave energy, OCEANS 2015 – MTS/IEEE Washington, 19–22 October 2015, 1–10, https://doi.org/10.23919/OCEANS.2015.7404569, 2015.
d'Amore-Domenech, R. and Leo, T. J.: Sustainable Hydrogen Production from Offshore Marine Renewable Farms: Techno-Energetic Insight on Seawater Electrolysis Technologies, ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng., 7, 8006–8022, https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b06779, 2019.
d'Amore-Domenech, R., Santiago, Ó., and Leo, T. J.: Multicriteria analysis of seawater electrolysis technologies for green hydrogen production at sea, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 133, 110166, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110166, 2020.
d'Amore-Domenech, R., Leo, T. J., and Pollet, B. G.: Bulk power transmission at sea: Life cycle cost comparison of electricity and hydrogen as energy vectors, Appl. Energ., 288, 116625, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.116625, 2021.
Dinh, V. N., Leahy, P., McKeogh, E., Murphy, J., and Cummins, V.: Development of a viability assessment model for hydrogen production from dedicated offshore wind farms, Int. J. Hydrogen Energ., 46, 24620–24631, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.04.232, 2021.
Dirlik, T. and Benasciutti, D.: Dirlik and Tovo-Benasciutti Spectral Methods in Vibration Fatigue: A Review with a Historical Perspective, Metals, 11, 1333, https://doi.org/10.3390/met11091333, 2021.
DNV: RP-C203: Fatigue design of offshore steel structures, https://www.dnv.com/oilgas/download/dnv-rp-c203-fatigue-design-of-offshore-steel-structures.html (last access: 4 March 2024), 2014.
DNV: Hydrogen Forecast to 2050: Energy Transition Outlook 2022, Det Norske Veritas®, 114, https://www.dnv.com/focus-areas/hydrogen/forecast-to-2050.html (last access: 4 March 2024), 2022.
DNV GL: DNVGL-RP-0416 Corrosion protection for wind turbines, recommended practice, https://www.dnv.com/energy/standards-guidelines/dnv-rp-0416-corrosion-protection-for-wind-turbines.html (last access: 4 March 2024), 2016.
Dong, W. B., Moan, T., and Gao, Z.: Long-term fatigue analysis of multi-planar tubular joints for jacket-type offshore wind turbine in time domain, Eng. Struct., 33, 2002–2014, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2011.02.037, 2011.
Dugger, G. and Francis, E.: Design of an ocean thermal energy plant ship to produce ammonia via hydrogen, Int. J. Hydrogen Energ., 2, 231–249, 1977.
Duguid, L.: Offshore Wind Farm Substructure Monitoring And Inspection, PN000205-LRT-001, https://ore.catapult.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Offshore-wind-farm-substructure-monitoring-and-inspection-report-.pdf (last access: 4 March 2024), 2017.
Dutton, A.: The Hydrogen Economy and Carbon Abatement–Implications and Challenges for Wind Energy, Wind Engineering, 27, 239–256, 2003.
Fajuyigbe, A. and Brennan, F.: Fitness-for-purpose assessment of cracked offshore wind turbine monopile, Mar. Struct., 77, 102965, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marstruc.2021.102965, 2021.
Fan, T.-Y., Lin, C.-Y., Huang, C.-C., and Chu, T.-L.: Time-Domain Fatigue Analysis of Multi-planar Tubular Joints for a Jacket-Type Substructure of Offshore Wind Turbines, Int. J. Offshore Polar, 30, 112–119, https://doi.org/10.17736/ijope.2020.jc762, 2020.
Feng, L., He, J., Hu, L., Shi, H., Yu, C., Wang, S., and Yang, S.: A parametric study on effects of pitting corrosion on steel plate's ultimate strength, Appl. Ocean Res., 95, 102026, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2019.102026, 2020.
Franco, B. A., Baptista, P., Neto, R. C., and Ganilha, S.: Assessment of offloading pathways for wind-powered offshore hydrogen production: Energy and economic analysis, Appl. Energ., 286, 116553, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.116553, 2021.
Frangopol, D. M.: Life-cycle performance, management, and optimisation of structural systems under uncertainty: accomplishments and challenges 1, Struct. Infrastruct. E., 7, 389–413, https://doi.org/10.1080/15732471003594427, 2011.
Garbatov, Y. and Guedes Soares, C.: Spatial Corrosion Wastage Modeling of Steel Plates Exposed to Marine Environments, J. Offshore Mech. Arct., 141, 031602, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4041991, 2019.
Gilloteaux, J.-C. and Babarit, A.: Preliminary Design of a Wind Driven Vessel Dedicated to Hydrogen Production, Proceedings of the ASME 2017 36th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering, Volume 10: Ocean Renewable Energy, Trondheim, Norway, 25–30 June 2017, V010T09A065, ASME, https://doi.org/10.1115/OMAE2017-6140, 2017.
Gomez, H. C., Gur, T., and Dolan, D.: Structural condition assessment of offshore wind turbine monopile foundations using vibration monitoring data, Proc. SPIE 8694, Nondestructive Characterization for Composite Materials, Aerospace Engineering, Civil Infrastructure, and Homeland Security 2013, 86940B, 11 April 2013, https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2018263, 2013.
Guo, L., Yang, S., and Jiao, H.: Behavior of thin-walled circular hollow section tubes subjected to bending, Thin Wall. Struct., 73, 281–289, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2013.08.014, 2013.
Haid, L., Stewart, G., Jonkman, J., Robertson, A., Lackner, M., and Matha, D.: Simulation-length requirements in the loads analysis of offshore floating wind turbines, Proceedings of the ASME 2013 32nd International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering, Volume 8: Ocean Renewable Energy, Nantes, France, 9–14 June 2013, V008T09A091, ASME, https://doi.org/10.1115/OMAE2013-11397, 2013.
Hameed, H., Sun, G., and Bai, Y.: An Overview of Risk-Based Inspection Planning for Flexible Pipeline, Proceedings of the ASME 2018 37th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering, Volume 5: Pipelines, Risers, and Subsea Systems, Madrid, Spain, 17–22 June 2018, V005T04A028, ASME, https://doi.org/10.1115/OMAE2018-78563, 2018.
Hasan, M. H., Mahlia, T. M. I., Mofijur, M., Rizwanul Fattah, I., Handayani, F., Ong, H. C., and Silitonga, A.: A comprehensive review on the recent development of ammonia as a renewable energy carrier, Energies, 14, 3732, https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133732, 2021.
Henry, A., McCallum, C., McStay, D., Rooney, D., Robertson, P., and Foley, A.: Analysis of wind to hydrogen production and carbon capture utilisation and storage systems for novel production of chemical energy carriers, J. Clean. Prod., 354, 131695, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131695, 2022.
Hilbert, L. R., Black, A. R., Andersen, F., and Mathiesen, T.: Inspection and monitoring of corrosion inside monopile foundations for offshore wind turbines, Paper no: 4730, EUROCORR 2011 Conference, Stockholm, Sweden, https://eurocorr.org/2011.html, 4–8 September 2011.
Hou, P., Enevoldsen, P., Eichman, J., Hu, W., Jacobson, M. Z., and Chen, Z.: Optimizing investments in coupled offshore wind -electrolytic hydrogen storage systems in Denmark, J. Power Sources, 359, 186–197, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.05.048, 2017.
Ibrahim, O. S., Singlitico, A., Proskovics, R., McDonagh, S., Desmond, C., and Murphy, J. D.: Dedicated large-scale floating offshore wind to hydrogen: Assessing design variables in proposed typologies, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 160, 112310, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112310, 2022.
IEC: Technical Specification IEC TS 61400-3-2: Wind energy generation systems – Part 3-2: Design requirements for floating offshore wind turbines, Ed. 1.0 2019-04, International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), BSI Standards Limited, ISBN 978 0 580 87990 6, ICS 27.180, 2019.
Igwemezie, V., Mehmanparast, A., and Kolios, A.: Current trend in offshore wind energy sector and material requirements for fatigue resistance improvement in large wind turbine support structures – A review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 101, 181–196, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.11.002, 2019.
Ioannou, A. and Brennan, F.: A preliminary techno-economic comparison between a grid-connected and non-grid connected offshore floating wind farm, Offshore Energy and Storage Summit (OSES), Brest, France, 1–6, https://doi.org/10.1109/OSES.2019.8867350, 2019.
IRENA: Innovation outlook: Ocean energy technologies, International Renewable Energy Agency Abu Dhabi, ISBN 978-92-9260-287-1, 2020.
IRENA and AEA: Innovation Outlook: Renewable Ammonia, International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi, Ammonia Energy Association, Brooklyn, ISBN 978-92-9260-423-3, 2022.
ITTC: The Specialist Committee on Hydrodynamic Modelling of Marine Renewable Energy Devices: Final Report and Recommendations to the 28th ITTC, https://www.ittc.info/media/7823/18-sc-hydrodynamic-testing-marine-renewables.pdf (last access: 4 March 2024), 2017.
ITTC: The Specialist Committee on Hydrodynamic Modelling of Marine Renewable Energy Devices: Final Report and Recommendations to the 29th ITTC, https://ittc.info/media/10940/volume-ii.pdf, 2021.
Jang, D., Kim, K., Kim, K.-H., and Kang, S.: Techno-economic analysis and Monte Carlo simulation for green hydrogen production using offshore wind power plant, Energ. Convers. Manage., 263, 115695, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2022.115695, 2022.
Jepma, C., Kok, G., Renz, M., Van Schot, M., and Wouters, K.: North Sea Energy D3.6 towards sustainable energy production on the North Sea-Green hydrogen production and CO2 storage: onshore or offshore, As part of topsector energy TKI Offshore Wind & TKI New Gas, https://north-sea-energy.eu/static/fc2fba594593abe1330f8b80eeaad756/NSE1_D3.6-Towards-sustainable-energy-production-on-the-North-Sea_final-public.pdf (last access: 4 March 2024), 2018.
Jiménez, A. A., Gómez Muñoz, C. Q., and García Márquez, F. P.: Machine learning for wind turbine blades maintenance management, Energies, 11, 13, https://doi.org/10.3390/en11010013, 2018.
Jiménez, A. A., Márquez, F. P. G., Moraleda, V. B., and Muñoz, C. Q. G.: Linear and nonlinear features and machine learning for wind turbine blade ice detection and diagnosis, Renew. Energ., 132, 1034–1048, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.08.050, 2019.
Kassem, N.: Offshore wind farms for hydrogen production subject to uncertainties, Proceedings of the International Joint Power Generation Conference collocated with TurboExpo 2003, International Joint Power Generation Conference, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 16–19 June 2003, 857–864, ASME, https://doi.org/10.1115/IJPGC2003-40046, 2003.
Katsikogiannis, G., Sørum, S. H., Bachynski, E. E., and Amdahl, J.: Environmental lumping for efficient fatigue assessment of large-diameter monopile wind turbines, Mar. Struct., 77, 102939, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marstruc.2021.102939, 2021.
Katsikogiannis, G., Hegseth, J. M., and Bachynski-Poliæ, E. E.: Application of a lumping method for fatigue design of monopile-based wind turbines using fully coupled and simplified models, Appl. Ocean Res., 120, 102998, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2021.102998, 2022.
Kumar, S., Arzaghi, E., Baalisampang, T., Garaniya, V., and Abbassi, R.: Insights into decision-making for offshore green hydrogen infrastructure developments, Process Saf. Environ., 174, 805–817, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2023.04.042, 2023.
Kvittem, M. I. and Moan, T.: Time domain analysis procedures for fatigue assessment of a semi-submersible wind turbine, Mar. Struct., 40, 38–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marstruc.2014.10.009, 2015.
Kvittem, M. I., Moan, T., Gao, Z., and Luan, C.: Short-Term Fatigue Analysis of Semi-Submersible Wind Turbine Tower, Proceedings of the ASME 2011 30th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering, Volume 2, Structures, Safety and Reliability, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 19–24 June 2011, 751–759, ASME, https://doi.org/10.1115/OMAE2011-50092, 2011.
Lee, J., Park, B., Kim, K.-H., and Ruy, W.-S.: Multi-objective optimization of liquid hydrogen FPSO at the conceptual design stage, International Int. J. Nav. Arch. Ocean, 15, 100511, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnaoe.2022.100511, 2023.
Leimeister, M. and Kolios, A.: A review of reliability-based methods for risk analysis and their application in the offshore wind industry, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 91, 1065–1076, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.004, 2018.
Leimeister, M., Kolios, A., and Collu, M.: Critical review of floating support structures for offshore wind farm deployment, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 1104, 012007, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1104/1/012007, 2018.
Li, S. and Kim, D. K.: Ultimate strength characteristics of unstiffened cylindrical shell in axial compression, Ocean Eng., 243, 110253, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2021.110253, 2022.
Liu, K., Yan, R.-J., and Guedes Soares, C.: Optimal sensor placement and assessment for modal identification, Ocean Eng., 165, 209–220, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2018.07.034, 2018.
Liu, M., Fang, S., Dong, H., and Xu, C.: Review of digital twin about concepts, technologies, and industrial applications, J. Manuf. Syst., 58, 346–361, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmsy.2020.06.017, 2021.
Lucas, T. R., Ferreira, A. F., Santos Pereira, R. B., and Alves, M.: Hydrogen production from the WindFloat Atlantic offshore wind farm: A techno-economic analysis, Appl. Energ., 310, 118481, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.118481, 2022.
Marino, E., Giusti, A., and Manuel, L.: Offshore wind turbine fatigue loads: The influence of alternative wave modeling for different turbulent and mean winds, Renew. Energ., 102, 157–169, 2017.
Martinez-Luengo, M., Kolios, A., and Wang, L.: Structural health monitoring of offshore wind turbines: A review through the Statistical Pattern Recognition Paradigm, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 64, 91–105, 2016.
Mathur, J., Agarwal, N., Swaroop, R., and Shah, N.: Economics of producing hydrogen as transportation fuel using offshore wind energy systems, Energ. Policy, 36, 1212–1222, 2008.
McKenna, R., D'Andrea, M., and González, M. G.: Analysing long-term opportunities for offshore energy system integration in the Danish North Sea, Advances in Applied Energy, 4, 100067, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adapen.2021.100067, 2021.
Mehta, M., Zaaijer, M., and von Terzi, D.: Optimum Turbine Design for Hydrogen Production from Offshore Wind, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 042061, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2265/4/042061, 2022.
Meier, K.: Hydrogen production with sea water electrolysis using Norwegian offshore wind energy potentials, Int. J. Energy Environ. Eng., 5, 104, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40095-014-0104-6, 2014.
Melchers, R. E.: Progress in developing realistic corrosion models, Struct. Infrastruct. E., 14, 843–853, https://doi.org/10.1080/15732479.2018.1436570, 2018.
Melchers, R. E.: Predicting long-term corrosion of metal alloys in physical infrastructure, npj Materials Degradation, 3, 4, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41529-018-0066-x, 2019.
Miao, B., Giordano, L., and Chan, S. H.: Long-distance renewable hydrogen transmission via cables and pipelines, Int. J. Hydrogen Energ., 46, 18699–18718, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.03.067, 2021.
Miyazaki, M., Paumier, L., and Caleyron, F.: Effect of Tension on Collapse Performance of Flexible Pipes, Proceedings of the ASME 2018 37th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering, Volume 5: Pipelines, Risers, and Subsea Systems, Madrid, Spain, 17–22 June 2018, V005T04A006, ASME, https://doi.org/10.1115/OMAE2018-77286, 2018.
Moan, T.: Life cycle structural integrity management of offshore structures, Struct. Infrastruct. E., 14, 911–927, https://doi.org/10.1080/15732479.2018.1438478, 2018.
Momber, A.: Corrosion and corrosion protection of support structures for offshore wind energy devices (OWEA), Mater. Corros., 62, 391–404, https://doi.org/10.1002/maco.201005691, 2011.
Mrsnik, M., Slavic, J., and Boltezar, M.: Frequency-domain methods for a vibration-fatigue-life estimation – Application to real data, Int. J. Fatigue, 47, 8–17, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2012.07.005, 2013.
Murahara, M. and Seki, K.: On-site sodium production with seawater electrolysis as alternative energy for oil by offshore wind power generation, 2008 IEEE Energy 2030 Conference, Atlanta, GA, USA, 1–8, https://doi.org/10.1109/ENERGY.2008.4780994, 2008.
Nielsen, J. J. and Sørensen, J. D.: On risk-based operation and maintenance of offshore wind turbine components, Reliab. Eng. Syst. Safe, 96, 218–229, 2011.
Nielsen, J. S. and Sørensen, J. D.: Risk-based derivation of target reliability levels for life extension of wind turbine structural components, Wind Energy, 24, 939–956, 2021.
Nøhr-Nielsen, L.: Corrosion Protection of Offshore Wind Power Plants, GfKORR, Gesellschaft für Korrosionsschutz, Annual Conference 2018 Bremerhaven, 6–7 November 2018, ISBN 3935406681, 2018.
Otter, A., Murphy, J., Pakrashi, V., Robertson, A., and Desmond, C.: A review of modelling techniques for floating offshore wind turbines, Wind Energy, 25, 831–857, https://doi.org/10.1002/we.2701, 2021.
Otter, A., Murphy, J., Pakrashi, V., Robertson, A., and Desmond, C.: A review of modelling techniques for floating offshore wind turbines, Wind Energy, 25, 831–857, https://doi.org/10.1002/we.2701, 2022.
Pakenham, B., Ermakova, A., and Mehmanparast, A.: A Review of Life Extension Strategies for Offshore Wind Farms Using Techno-Economic Assessments, Energies, 14, 1936, https://doi.org/10.3390/en14071936, 2021.
Patryniak, K., Collu, M., and Coraddu, A.: Multidisciplinary design analysis and optimisation frameworks for floating offshore wind turbines: State of the art, Ocean Eng., 251, 111002, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2022.111002, 2022.
Patterson, B. D., Mo, F., Borgschulte, A., Hillestad, M., Joos, F., Kristiansen, T., Sunde, S., and van Bokhoven, J. A.: Renewable CO2 recycling and synthetic fuel production in a marine environment, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 116, 12212–12219, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1902335116, 2019.
Pearson, H., Pearson, C., Corradi, L., and Almeida, A.: Offshore infrastructure reuse contribution to decarbonisation, SPE Offshore Europe Conference and Exhibition, Aberdeen, UK, September 2019, https://doi.org/10.2118/195772-MS, 2019.
Peters, J. L., Remmers, T., Wheeler, A. J., Murphy, J., and Cummins, V.: A systematic review and meta-analysis of GIS use to reveal trends in offshore wind energy research and offer insights on best practices, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 128, 109916, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109916, 2020.
Raut, G. and Goudarzi, N.: North Carolina Wave Energy Resource: Hydrogen Production Potential, Proceedings of the ASME 2018 Power Conference collocated with the ASME 2018 12th International Conference on Energy Sustainability and the ASME 2018 Nuclear Forum, Volume 1: Fuels, Combustion, and Material Handling, Combustion Turbines Combined Cycles, Boilers and Heat Recovery Steam Generators, Virtual Plant and Cyber-Physical Systems, Plant Development and Construction, Renewable Energy Systems, Lake Buena Vista, Florida, USA, 24–28 June 2018, V001T06A018, ASME, https://doi.org/10.1115/POWER2018-7388, 2018.
REM: Lhyfe Launches Offshore Renewable Green Hydrogen Production Pilot Site, Renewable Energy Magazine, https://www.renewableenergymagazine.com/hydrogen/lhyfe-launches-offshore-renewable-green-hydrogen-production-20220923, last access: 1 November 2022.
Rogeau, A., Vieubled, J., de Coatpont, M., Affonso Nobrega, P., Erbs, G., and Girard, R.: Techno-economic evaluation and resource assessment of hydrogen production through offshore wind farms: A European perspective, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 187, 113699, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113699, 2023.
Salvino, L. W. and Collette, M. D.: Monitoring Marine Structures, in: Encyclopedia of Structural Health Monitoring, https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470061626.shm112, 2009.
Saraygord Afshari, S., Enayatollahi, F., Xu, X., and Liang, X.: Machine learning-based methods in structural reliability analysis: A review, Reliab. Eng. Syst. Safe, 219, 108223, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2021.108223, 2022.
Scafidi, J., Wilkinson, M., Gilfillan, S. M. V., Heinemann, N., and Haszeldine, R. S.: A quantitative assessment of the hydrogen storage capacity of the UK continental shelf, Int. J. Hydrogen Energ., 46, 8629–8639, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.12.106, 2021.
Scheu, M., Matha, D., Schwarzkopf, M.-A., and Kolios, A.: Human exposure to motion during maintenance on floating offshore wind turbines, Ocean Eng., 165, 293–306, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2018.07.016, 2018.
Schmitz, M. and Madlener, R.: Economic Viability of Kite-Based Wind Energy Powerships with CAES or Hydrogen Storage, Enrgy Proced., 75, 704–715, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2015.07.497, 2015.
Serna, A., Nonney-Rico, J. E., and Tadeo, F.: Model predictive control of hydrogen production by renewable energy, IREC2015 The Sixth International Renewable Energy Congress, Sousse, Tunisia, 2015, 1–6, https://doi.org/10.1109/IREC.2015.7110959, 2015.
Shafiee, M. and Sørensen, J. D.: Maintenance optimization and inspection planning of wind energy assets: Models, methods and strategies, Reliab. Eng. Syst. Safe, 192, 105993, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2017.10.025, 2019.
Shittu, A. A., Kolios, A., and Mehmanparast, A.: A Systematic Review of Structural Reliability Methods for Deformation and Fatigue Analysis of Offshore Jacket Structures, Metals, 11, 50, https://doi.org/10.3390/met11010050, 2021.
Shittu, A. A., Mehmanparast, A., Shafiee, M., Kolios, A., Hart, P., and Pilario, K.: Structural reliability assessment of offshore wind turbine support structures subjected to pitting corrosion-fatigue: A damage tolerance modelling approach, Wind Energy, 23, 2004–2026, https://doi.org/10.1002/we.2542, 2020.
Shojai, S., Schaumann, P., and Brömer, T.: Probabilistic modelling of pitting corrosion and its impact on stress concentrations in steel structures in the offshore wind energy, Mar. Struct., 84, 103232, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marstruc.2022.103232, 2022.
Silva, J. E., Garbatov, Y., and Guedes Soares, C.: Ultimate Strength Assessment of Rectangular Steel Plates Subjected to a Random Non-Uniform Corrosion Degradation, Eng. Struct., 52, 295–305, 2013.
Song, S., Lin, H., Sherman, P., Yang, X., Nielsen, C. P., Chen, X., and McElroy, M. B.: Production of hydrogen from offshore wind in China and cost-competitive supply to Japan, Nat. Commun., 12, 6953, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27214-7, 2021.
Sørensen, J. D.: Reliability-based calibration of fatigue safety factors for offshore wind turbines, Int. J. Offshore Polar, 22, 234–241, 2012.
Steinberger-Wilckens, R.: Der Aufbau einer Infrastruktur für Wasserstoff als Treibstoff – Wie kann es gehen?, in: VDI Berichte, No. 1704, https://research.birmingham.ac.uk/en/publications/der-aufbau-einer-infrastruktur-für-wasserstoff-als-treibstoff-wie (last access: 4 March 2024), 2002.
Stetco, A., Dinmohammadi, F., Zhao, X., Robu, V., Flynn, D., Barnes, M., Keane, J., and Nenadic, G.: Machine learning methods for wind turbine condition monitoring: A review, Renew. Energ., 133, 620–635, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.10.047, 2019.
Stewart, G., Lackner, M., Haid, L., Matha, D., Jonkman, J., and Robertson, A.: Assessing fatigue and ultimate load uncertainty in floating offshore wind turbines due to varying simulation length, Conference Paper NREL/CP-5000-58518, July 2013, 11th International Conference on Structural Safety and Reliability, Columbia University, New York, New York, 16–20 June 2013, https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy13osti/58518.pdf (last access: 4 March 2024), 2013.
Sunday, K. and Brennan, F.: A review of offshore wind monopiles structural design achievements and challenges, Ocean Eng., 235, 109409, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2021.109409, 2021.
Temiz, M. and Javani, N.: Design and analysis of a combined floating photovoltaic system for electricity and hydrogen production, Int. J. Hydrogen Energ., 45, 3457–3469, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.12.226, 2020.
Thöns, S.: On the Value of Monitoring Information for the Structural Integrity and Risk Management, Comput.-Aided Civ. Inf., 33, 79–94, https://doi.org/10.1111/mice.12332, 2018.
Thöns, S., Faber, M. H., and Rücker, W.: Life Cycle Cost Optimized Monitoring Systems for Offshore Wind Turbine Structures, in: IRIS Industrial Safety and Life Cycle Engineering: Technologies/Standards/Applications, edited by: VCE Vienna Consulting Engineers, Vienna, Austria, 75–90, https://www.vce.at/iris/pdf/irisbook/iris_chapter04.pdf (last access: 4 March 2024), 2013.
Tsujimoto, M., Uehiro, T., Esaki, H., Kinoshita, T., Takagi, K., Tanaka, S., Yamaguchi, H., Okamura, H., Satou, M., and Minami, Y.: Optimum routing of a sailing wind farm, J. Mar. Sci. Tech., 14, 89–103, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00773-008-0034-1, 2009.
Tuegel, E. J., Ingraffea, A. R., Eason, T. G., and Spottswood, S. M.: Reengineering Aircraft Structural Life Prediction Using a Digital Twin, Int. J. Aerospace Eng., 2011, 154798, https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/154798, 2011.
Turner, M. W., Cleland, J. G., and Baker, J.: Salt Water Activated Power System (SWAPS) for ocean buoys and related platforms, OCEANS 2009, 26–29 October 2009, 1–8, https://doi.org/10.23919/OCEANS.2009.5422338, 2009.
VanDerHorn, E. and Mahadevan, S.: Digital Twin: Generalization, characterization and implementation, Decis. Support Syst., 145, 113524, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2021.113524, 2021.
VATTENFALL: World’s first hydrogen-producing offshore wind turbine gets £9.3million funding boost, https://group.vattenfall.com/uk/newsroom/pressreleases/2022/aberdeen-hydrogen#:~:text=The pilot project at Vattenfall's,production as early as 2025, last access: 1 November 2022.
Veers, P., Bottasso, C. L., Manuel, L., Naughton, J., Pao, L., Paquette, J., Robertson, A., Robinson, M., Ananthan, S., Barlas, T., Bianchini, A., Bredmose, H., Horcas, S. G., Keller, J., Madsen, H. A., Manwell, J., Moriarty, P., Nolet, S., and Rinker, J.: Grand challenges in the design, manufacture, and operation of future wind turbine systems, Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1071–1131, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1071-2023, 2023.
Wagg, D. J., Worden, K., Barthorpe, R. J., and Gardner, P.: Digital Twins: State-of-the-Art and Future Directions for Modeling and Simulation in Engineering Dynamics Applications, ASCE-ASME J. Risk. and Uncert. in Engrg. Sys. Part B Mech. Engrg., 6, 030901, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4046739, 2020.
Wang, L., Kolios, A., Liu, X., Venetsanos, D., and Cai, R.: Reliability of offshore wind turbine support structures: A state-of-the-art review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 161, 112250, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112250, 2022.
Woznicki, M., Le Solliec, G., and Loisel, R.: Far off-shore wind energy-based hydrogen production: Technological assessment and market valuation designs, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 1669, 012004, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1669/1/012004, 2020.
Wu, X., Hu, Y., Li, Y., Yang, J., Duan, L., Wang, T., Adcock, T., Jiang, Z., Gao, Z., and Lin, Z.: Foundations of offshore wind turbines: A review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 104, 379–393, 2019.
Xu, K., Zhang, M., Shao, Y., Gao, Z., and Moan, T.: Effect of wave nonlinearity on fatigue damage and extreme responses of a semi-submersible floating wind turbine, Appl. Ocean Res., 91, 101879, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2019.101879, 2019.
Yeter, B. and Garbatov, Y.: Structural integrity assessment of fixed support structures for offshore wind turbines: A review, Ocean Eng., 244, 110271, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2021.110271, 2022.
Yeter, B., Garbatov, Y., and Guedes Soares, C.: Evaluation of fatigue damage models predictions for fixed offshore wind turbine support structures, Int. J. Fatigue, 87, 71–80, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2016.01.007, 2016.
Yeter, B., Garbatov, Y., and Guedes Soares, C.: Risk-based life-cycle assessment of offshore wind turbine support structures accounting for economic constraints, Struct. Saf., 81, 101867, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strusafe.2019.06.001, 2019.
Yeter, B., Garbatov, Y., and Guedes Soares, C.: Risk-based maintenance planning of offshore wind farms, Reliability Engineering and System Safety, 202, 107062, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2020.107062, 2020.
Yeter, B., Garbatov, Y., and Guedes Soares, C.: Structural Health Monitoring Data Analysis for Ageing Fixed Offshore Wind Turbine Structures, Proceedings of the ASME 2021 40th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering. Volume 2: Structures, Safety, and Reliability, Virtual, Online, 21–30 June 2021, V002T02A030, ASME, https://doi.org/10.1115/OMAE2021-63007, 2021.
Young, R. B., Barr, I. R., and Marianowski, L. R.: Production of methane using offshore wind energy, 11th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System, 1, 541–546, https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976iece.conf..541Y (last access: 4 March 2024), 1976.
Zhao, P., Dai, Y., Wang, J., and Xie, D.: Dynamic Analysis of a Wind Energy Storage System in Remote Offshore Areas, Proceedings of the ASME 2011 Turbo Expo: Turbine Technical Conference and Exposition. Volume 1: Aircraft Engine, Ceramics, Coal, Biomass and Alternative Fuels, Wind Turbine Technology, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, 6–10 June 2011, 831–839, ASME, https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2011-46058, 2011.
Zhu, X., Lei, Q., Meng, Y., and Cui, X.: Analysis of tensile response of flexible pipe with ovalization under hydrostatic pressure, Appl. Ocean Res., 108, 102451, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2020.102451, 2021.
Zulkifli, M., Husain, M. A., Zaki, N. M., Jaafar, A., Mukhlas, N., Ahmad, S. S., Soom, E. M., and Azman, N.: Environmental impacts of utilization of ageing fixed offshore platform for ocean thermal energy conversion, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 2259, 012019, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2259/1/012019, 2022.
Short summary
A detailed review of ocean renewable systems, with focus on offshore wind, for the offshore production of green fuels was conducted. Engineering tools and methodologies and their suitability for the design and operation of offshore H2 systems were reviewed. Distinct from wind electricity generation, the support platforms for offshore H2 systems involve additional requirements and constraints. Challenges and opportunities for the offshore H2 systems are discussed.
A detailed review of ocean renewable systems, with focus on offshore wind, for the offshore...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint