Articles | Volume 10, issue 3
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-579-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-579-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
20 Mar 2025
Research article |
| 20 Mar 2025
| 20 Mar 2025
Exploring noise annoyance and sound quality for airborne wind energy systems: insights from a listening experiment
Department of Flow Physics and Technology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, 2629 HS, the Netherlands
Renatto M. Yupa-Villanueva
Department of Aircraft Noise and Climate Effects, Delft University of Technology, Delft, 2629 HS, the Netherlands
Daniele Ragni
Department of Flow Physics and Technology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, 2629 HS, the Netherlands
Roberto Merino-Martínez
Department of Aircraft Noise and Climate Effects, Delft University of Technology, Delft, 2629 HS, the Netherlands
Piet J. R. van Gool
Department of Industrial Engineering and Innovation Sciences, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, 5612 AE, the Netherlands
Roland Schmehl
Department of Flow Physics and Technology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, 2629 HS, the Netherlands
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Rishikesh Joshi, Dominic von Terzi, and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 695–718, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-695-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-695-2025, 2025
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This paper presents a methodology for assessing the system design and scaling trends in airborne wind energy (AWE). A multi-disciplinary design, analysis, and optimisation (MDAO) framework was developed, integrating power, energy production, and cost models for the fixed-wing ground-generation (GG) AWE concept. Using the levelized cost of electricity (LCoE) as the design objective, we found that the optimal size of systems lies between the rated power of 100 and 1000 kW.
Oriol Cayon, Simon Watson, and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-182, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-182, 2025
Revised manuscript under review for WES
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This study demonstrates how kites used to generate wind energy can act as sensors to measure wind conditions and system behaviour. By combining data from existing sensors, such as those measuring position, speed, and forces on the tether, a sensor fusion technique accurately estimates wind conditions and kite performance. This approach can be integrated into control systems to help optimise energy generation and enhance the reliability of these systems in changing wind conditions.
Dylan Eijkelhof, Nicola Rossi, and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-139, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-139, 2024
Preprint under review for WES
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This study compares circular and figure-of-eight flight shapes for flying kite wind energy systems, assessing power output, stability, and system lifespan. Results show that circular patterns are ideal for maximizing energy in compact areas, while figure-of-eight paths, especially flying up in the centre of the figure, deliver smoother, more consistent power and have a longer expected kite lifespan. These findings offer valuable insights to enhance design and performance of kite systems.
Christoph Elfert, Dietmar Göhlich, and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 2261–2282, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2261-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2261-2024, 2024
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This article presents a tow test procedure for measuring the steering behaviour of tethered membrane wings. The experimental set-up includes a novel onboard sensor system for measuring the position and orientation of the towed wing, complemented by an attached low-cost multi-hole probe for measuring the relative flow velocity vector at the wing. The measured data (steering gain and dead time) can be used to improve kite models and simulate the operation of airborne wind energy systems.
Rishikesh Joshi, Roland Schmehl, and Michiel Kruijff
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 2195–2215, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2195-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2195-2024, 2024
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This paper presents a fast cycle–power computation model for fixed-wing ground-generation airborne wind energy systems. It is suitable for sensitivity and scalability studies, which makes it a valuable tool for design and innovation trade-offs. It is also suitable for integration with cost models and systems engineering tools, enhancing its applicability in assessing the potential of airborne wind energy in the broader energy system.
Mark Schelbergen and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1323–1344, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1323-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1323-2024, 2024
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We present a novel two-point model of a kite with a suspended control unit to describe the characteristic swinging motion of this assembly during turning manoeuvres. Quasi-steady and dynamic model variants are combined with a discretised tether model, and simulation results are compared with measurement data of an instrumented kite system. By resolving the pitch of the kite, the model allows for computing the angle of attack, which is essential for estimating the generated aerodynamic forces.
Livia Brandetti, Sebastiaan Paul Mulders, Roberto Merino-Martinez, Simon Watson, and Jan-Willem van Wingerden
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 471–493, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-471-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-471-2024, 2024
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This research presents a multi-objective optimisation approach to balance vertical-axis wind turbine (VAWT) performance and noise, comparing the combined wind speed estimator and tip-speed ratio (WSE–TSR) tracking controller with a baseline. Psychoacoustic annoyance is used as a novel metric for human perception of wind turbine noise. Results showcase the WSE–TSR tracking controller’s potential in trading off the considered objectives, thereby fostering the deployment of VAWTs in urban areas.
Maaike Sickler, Bart Ummels, Michiel Zaaijer, Roland Schmehl, and Katherine Dykes
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1225–1233, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1225-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1225-2023, 2023
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This paper investigates the effect of wind farm layout on the performance of offshore wind farms. A regular farm layout is compared to optimised irregular layouts. The irregular layouts have higher annual energy production, and the power production is less sensitive to wind direction. However, turbine towers require thicker walls to counteract increased fatigue due to increased turbulence levels in the farm. The study shows that layout optimisation can be used to maintain high-yield performance.
Mark Schelbergen, Peter C. Kalverla, Roland Schmehl, and Simon J. Watson
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1097–1120, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1097-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1097-2020, 2020
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We have presented a methodology for including multiple wind profile shapes in a wind resource description that are identified using a data-driven approach. These shapes go beyond the height range for which conventional wind profile relationships are developed. Moreover, they include non-monotonic shapes such as low-level jets. We demonstrated this methodology for an on- and offshore reference location using DOWA data and efficiently estimated the annual energy production of a pumping AWE system.
Jan Hummel, Dietmar Göhlich, and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 41–55, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-41-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-41-2019, 2019
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We describe a tow test setup for the reproducible measurement of aerodynamic, structural dynamic and flight dynamic properties of tethered membrane wings. The test procedure is based on repeatable automated maneuvers with the entire kite system under realistic conditions. The developed measurement method can be used to quantitatively compare different wing designs, to validate and improve simulation models, and to systematically improve kite designs.
Johannes Oehler and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 1–21, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-1-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-1-2019, 2019
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We present an experimental method for aerodynamic characterization of flexible membrane kites by in situ measurement of the relative flow, while performing complex flight maneuvers. We find that the aerodynamics of this type of wing depend not only on the angle of attack, but also on the level of aerodynamic loading and the aeroelastic deformation. We recommend using the relative power setting of the kite as a secondary influencing parameter.
Tarek N. Dief, Uwe Fechner, Roland Schmehl, Shigeo Yoshida, Amr M. M. Ismaiel, and Amr M. Halawa
Wind Energ. Sci., 3, 275–291, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-275-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-275-2018, 2018
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Short summary
This study investigates noise annoyance caused by airborne wind energy systems (AWESs), a novel wind energy technology that uses kites to harness high-altitude winds. Through a listening experiment with 75 participants, sharpness was identified as the key factor predicting annoyance. Fixed-wing kites generated more annoyance than soft-wing kites, likely due to their sharper, more tonal sound. The findings can help improve AWESs’ designs, reducing noise-related disturbances for nearby residents.
This study investigates noise annoyance caused by airborne wind energy systems (AWESs), a novel...
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