Articles | Volume 10, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-813-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-813-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Load case selection for finite-element simulations of wind turbine pitch bearings and hubs
Matthias Stammler
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Large Bearing Laboratory, Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy Systems IWES, Hamburg, 21029, Germany
Florian Schleich
Large Bearing Laboratory, Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy Systems IWES, Hamburg, 21029, Germany
Related authors
Oliver Menck, Florian Schleich, and Matthias Stammler
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-53, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-53, 2025
Preprint under review for WES
Short summary
Short summary
The paper discusses how to calculate the life of a blade bearing that is a roller bearing, as opposed to ball bearings, which most papers on the subject discuss. The raceway fatigue life of the bearing is calculated in a very detailed manner. This includes a validated finite element simulation model, and an approach to determine loads for all operating conditions that the wind turbine experiences.
Oliver Menck and Matthias Stammler
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 777–798, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-777-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-777-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Oscillating bearings, like rotating bearings, can fail due to rolling contact fatigue. But the publications in the literature on this topic are difficult to understand. In order to help people decide which method to use, we have summarized the available literature. We also point out some errors and things to look out for to help engineers that want to calculate the rolling contact fatigue life of an oscillating bearing.
Matthias Stammler
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1821–1837, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1821-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1821-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Wind turbines subject their components to highly variable loads over very long lifetimes. Tests of components like the pitch bearings that connect rotor blades and the rotor hub serve to validate their ability to withstand these loads. Due to the complexity of the operational loads, the definition of test programs is challenging. This work outlines a method that defines wear test programs for specific pitch bearings and gives a case study for an example turbine.
Arne Bartschat, Karsten Behnke, and Matthias Stammler
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1495–1510, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1495-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1495-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Blade bearings are among the most stressed and challenging components of a wind turbine. Experimental investigations using different test rigs and real-size blade bearings have been able to show that rather short time intervals of only several hours of turbine operation can cause wear damage on the raceways of blade bearings. The proposed methods can be used to assess wear-critical operation conditions and to validate control strategies as well as lubricants for the application.
Oliver Menck, Matthias Stammler, and Florian Schleich
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1743–1754, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1743-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1743-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Blade bearings of wind turbines experience unusual loads compared to bearings in other industrial applications, which adds some difficulty to the application of otherwise well-established calculation methods, like fatigue lifetime. As a result, different methods for such calculations can be found in the literature. This paper compares three approaches of varying complexity and comes to the conclusion that the simplest of the methods is very inaccurate compared to the more complex methods.
Matthias Stammler, Fabian Schwack, Norbert Bader, Andreas Reuter, and Gerhard Poll
Wind Energ. Sci., 3, 97–105, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-97-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-97-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Modern wind turbines all share the ability to turn (pitch) the blades around their main axis. By pitching the blades, the aerodynamic forces created by the blades are controlled. Rolling bearings, consisting of two steel rings and balls that roll on raceways between them, are used to allow pitching. To design pitch drives, it is necessary to know the losses within the bearings. This article describes how such losses have been measured and compares them with calculation models.
Oliver Menck, Florian Schleich, and Matthias Stammler
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-53, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-53, 2025
Preprint under review for WES
Short summary
Short summary
The paper discusses how to calculate the life of a blade bearing that is a roller bearing, as opposed to ball bearings, which most papers on the subject discuss. The raceway fatigue life of the bearing is calculated in a very detailed manner. This includes a validated finite element simulation model, and an approach to determine loads for all operating conditions that the wind turbine experiences.
Oliver Menck and Matthias Stammler
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 777–798, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-777-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-777-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Oscillating bearings, like rotating bearings, can fail due to rolling contact fatigue. But the publications in the literature on this topic are difficult to understand. In order to help people decide which method to use, we have summarized the available literature. We also point out some errors and things to look out for to help engineers that want to calculate the rolling contact fatigue life of an oscillating bearing.
Matthias Stammler
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1821–1837, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1821-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1821-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Wind turbines subject their components to highly variable loads over very long lifetimes. Tests of components like the pitch bearings that connect rotor blades and the rotor hub serve to validate their ability to withstand these loads. Due to the complexity of the operational loads, the definition of test programs is challenging. This work outlines a method that defines wear test programs for specific pitch bearings and gives a case study for an example turbine.
Arne Bartschat, Karsten Behnke, and Matthias Stammler
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1495–1510, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1495-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1495-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Blade bearings are among the most stressed and challenging components of a wind turbine. Experimental investigations using different test rigs and real-size blade bearings have been able to show that rather short time intervals of only several hours of turbine operation can cause wear damage on the raceways of blade bearings. The proposed methods can be used to assess wear-critical operation conditions and to validate control strategies as well as lubricants for the application.
Karsten Behnke and Florian Schleich
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 289–301, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-289-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-289-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The objective of this work is to find limits within typical operating conditions of a wind turbine below which wear on the bearing raceway does not occur. It covers the test of blade bearings with an outer diameter of 2.6 m. The test parameters are based on a 3 MW reference turbine and are compared to values from the literature. It was shown that it can be possible to avoid wear, which again can be used to design a wind turbine controller.
Oliver Menck, Matthias Stammler, and Florian Schleich
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1743–1754, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1743-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1743-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Blade bearings of wind turbines experience unusual loads compared to bearings in other industrial applications, which adds some difficulty to the application of otherwise well-established calculation methods, like fatigue lifetime. As a result, different methods for such calculations can be found in the literature. This paper compares three approaches of varying complexity and comes to the conclusion that the simplest of the methods is very inaccurate compared to the more complex methods.
Matthias Stammler, Fabian Schwack, Norbert Bader, Andreas Reuter, and Gerhard Poll
Wind Energ. Sci., 3, 97–105, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-97-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-97-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Modern wind turbines all share the ability to turn (pitch) the blades around their main axis. By pitching the blades, the aerodynamic forces created by the blades are controlled. Rolling bearings, consisting of two steel rings and balls that roll on raceways between them, are used to allow pitching. To design pitch drives, it is necessary to know the losses within the bearings. This article describes how such losses have been measured and compares them with calculation models.
Related subject area
Thematic area: Materials and operation | Topic: Fatigue
Data-driven surrogate model for wind turbine damage equivalent load
Probabilistic surrogate modeling of damage equivalent loads on onshore and offshore wind turbines using mixture density networks
Effect of scour on the fatigue life of offshore wind turbines and its prevention through passive structural control
Review of rolling contact fatigue life calculation for oscillating bearings and application-dependent recommendations for use
Non-proportionality analysis of multiaxial fatigue stress histories in trailing edge adhesive joints of wind turbine rotor blades
Quantifying the effect of low-frequency fatigue dynamics on offshore wind turbine foundations: a comparative study
Sensitivity analysis of the effect of wind and wake characteristics on wind turbine loads in a small wind farm
Probabilistic temporal extrapolation of fatigue damage of offshore wind turbine substructures based on strain measurements
Damage equivalent load synthesis and stochastic extrapolation for fatigue life validation
Rad Haghi and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 2039–2062, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2039-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2039-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This journal paper focuses on developing surrogate models for predicting the damage equivalent load (DEL) on wind turbines without needing extensive aeroelastic simulations. The study emphasizes the development of a sequential machine learning architecture for this purpose. The study also explores implementing simplified wake models and transfer learning to enhance the models' prediction capabilities in various wind conditions.
Deepali Singh, Richard Dwight, and Axelle Viré
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1885–1904, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1885-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1885-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The selection of a suitable site for the installation of a wind turbine plays an important role in ensuring a safe operating lifetime of the structure. In this study, we show that mixture density networks can accelerate this process by inferring functions from data that can accurately map the environmental conditions to the loads but also propagate the uncertainty from the inflow to the response.
Yu Cao, Ningyu Wu, Jigang Yang, Chao Chen, Ronghua Zhu, and Xugang Hua
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1089–1104, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1089-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1089-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigates the offshore wind turbine support structure’s fatigue life by a rapid numerical model which considers the effects of scour and a tuned mass damper. An optimization technique is proposed to find the damper's optimal parameters, considering time-varying scour. It is found that the damper optimized by the proposed optimization technique performs better than an initially designed damper in terms of fatigue life enhancement.
Oliver Menck and Matthias Stammler
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 777–798, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-777-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-777-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Oscillating bearings, like rotating bearings, can fail due to rolling contact fatigue. But the publications in the literature on this topic are difficult to understand. In order to help people decide which method to use, we have summarized the available literature. We also point out some errors and things to look out for to help engineers that want to calculate the rolling contact fatigue life of an oscillating bearing.
Claudio Balzani and Pablo Noever Castelos
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-167, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-167, 2024
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
Short summary
Short summary
Wind turbine rotor blades consist of several subcomponents that are glued together. Such connections are subjected to fatigue loads. This paper analyzes the characteristics of those fatigue loads in trailing edge adhesive joints of three different wind turbine rotor blades. It is shown that the fatigue loads have significant degrees of non-proportionality, which helps engineers to choose a valid fatigue analysis framework and to design more reliable and cost-efficient rotor blades in the future.
Negin Sadeghi, Pietro D'Antuono, Nymfa Noppe, Koen Robbelein, Wout Weijtjens, and Christof Devriendt
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1839–1852, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1839-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1839-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Analysis of long-term fatigue damage of four offshore wind turbines using 3 years of measurement data was performed for the first time to gain insight into the low-frequency fatigue damage (LFFD) impact on overall consumed life. The LFFD factor depends on the (linear) stress–life (SN) curve slope, heading, site, signal, and turbine type. Up to ∼ 65 % of the total damage can be related to LFFDs. Therefore, in this case study, the LFFD effect has a significant impact on the final damage.
Kelsey Shaler, Amy N. Robertson, and Jason Jonkman
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 25–40, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-25-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-25-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This work evaluates which wind-inflow- and wake-related parameters have the greatest influence on fatigue and ultimate loads for turbines in a small wind farm. Twenty-eight parameters were screened using an elementary effects approach to identify the parameters that lead to the largest variation in these loads of each turbine. The findings show the increased importance of non-streamwise wind components and wake parameters in fatigue and ultimate load sensitivity of downstream turbines.
Clemens Hübler and Raimund Rolfes
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1919–1940, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1919-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1919-2022, 2022
Short summary
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Offshore wind turbines are beginning to reach their design lifetimes. Hence, lifetime extensions are becoming relevant. To make well-founded decisions on possible lifetime extensions, fatigue damage predictions are required. Measurement-based assessments instead of simulation-based analyses have rarely been conducted so far, since data are limited. Therefore, this work focuses on the temporal extrapolation of measurement data. It is shown that fatigue damage can be extrapolated accurately.
Anand Natarajan
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1171–1181, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1171-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1171-2022, 2022
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The article delineates a novel procedure to use 10 min measurement statistics with few known parameters of the wind turbine to determine the long-term fatigue damage probability and compare this with the expected damage levels from the design to provide an indicator of structural reliability and remaining life. The results are validated with load measurements from a wind turbine within an offshore wind farm.
Cited articles
Becker, D.: Zertifizierungskonformer Strukturnachweis von zyklisch-hochbelasteten Großwälzlagerringen auf Basis der FKM Richtlinie, https://doi.org/10.48447/BF-2024-422, 2024a. a
Becker, D.: Pitch bearings for multi-MW wind turbine applications – advanced multi-bearing calculation process and product development trends regarding pitch system modularization and hub standardization, https://bearingworld.org/fileadmin/content/comot/bearingworld/Programm/Bearing_World_Program_2024.pdf (last acccess: 23 April`2025), 2024b. a
Burton, T., Jenkins, N., Sharpe, D., and Bossanyi, E.: Wind Energy Handbook, 2nd edn., Wiley, Chichester and New York, ISBN 978-0-470-69975-1, 2011. a
Chen, G. and Wen, J.: Load Performance of Large-Scale Rolling Bearings With Supporting Structure in Wind Turbines, J. Tribol.-T. ASME, 134, 041105, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4007349, 2012. a
FKM: Analytical Strength Assessment of Components, VDMA, 7th Edn., 2021. a
Graßmann, M., Schleich, F., and Stammler, M.: Validation of a finite-element model of a wind turbine blade bearing, Finite Elem. Anal. De., 221, 103957, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.finel.2023.103957, 2023. a, b
ISO: Rolling bearings – Damage and failures – Terms, characteristics and causes, ISO 15243, https://www.iso.org/standard/59619.html (last access: 23 April 2025), 2017. a
Requate, N., Wiens, M., and Meyer, T.: A Structured Wind Turbine Controller Evaluation Process Embedded into the V-Model for System Development, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 1618, 022045, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1618/2/022045, 2020. a
Sevinc, A., Rosemeier, M., Bätge, M., Braun, R., Meng, F., Shan, M., Horte, D., Balzani, C., and Reuter, A.: IWES Wind Turbine IWT-7.5-164, Hannover, https://doi.org/10.24406/IWES-N-518562, 2014. a
Stammler, M.: Endurance Test Strategies for Pitch Bearings of Wind Turbines, Fraunhofer Verlag, Stuttgart, https://doi.org/10.15488/10080, 2020. a, b, c, d
Stammler, M., Thomas, P., Reuter, A., Schwack, F., and Poll, G.: Effect of load reduction mechanisms on loads and blade bearing movements of wind turbines, Wind Energy, 6, 119, https://doi.org/10.1002/we.2428, 2019. a
Short summary
The structures at the center of wind turbine rotors are loaded by three rotor blades. The rotor blades have different loads, which depend on their positions and the incoming wind. The number of possible different loads is too high to simulate each of them for later design of the structures. This work attempts to reduce the number of necessary simulations by exploring inherent relations between the loads of the three rotor blades.
The structures at the center of wind turbine rotors are loaded by three rotor blades. The rotor...
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