Articles | Volume 9, issue 3
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-585-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-585-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
14 Mar 2024
Research article |
| 14 Mar 2024
| 14 Mar 2024
Gradient-based wind farm layout optimization with inclusion and exclusion zones
Javier Criado Risco
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Wind Energy and Power Systems, Technical University Of Denmark, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
now at: Ørsted, Nesa Allé 1, 2820 Gentofte, Denmark
Rafael Valotta Rodrigues
Wind Energy and Power Systems, Technical University Of Denmark, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
now at: Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Massachusetts Boston, 100 Morissey Blvd, Boston, MA 02125, United States of America
Mikkel Friis-Møller
Wind Energy and Power Systems, Technical University Of Denmark, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
Julian Quick
Wind Energy and Power Systems, Technical University Of Denmark, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
Mads Mølgaard Pedersen
Wind Energy and Power Systems, Technical University Of Denmark, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
Pierre-Elouan Réthoré
Wind Energy and Power Systems, Technical University Of Denmark, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
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Julian Quick, Edward Hart, Marcus Binder Nilsen, Rasmus Sode Lund, Jaime Liew, Piinshin Huang, Pierre-Elouan Rethore, Jonathan Keller, Wooyong Song, and Yi Guo
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-63, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-63, 2025
Preprint under review for WES
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Wind turbine main bearings often fail prematurely, creating costly maintenance challenges. This study examined how wake effects – where upstream turbines create disturbed airflow that impacts downstream turbines – affect bearing lifespans. Using computer simulations, we found that wake effects reduce bearing life by 16% on average. The direction of wake impact matters significantly due to interactions between wind forces and gravity, informing better wind turbine and farm farm design strategies.
Charbel Assaad, Juan Pablo Murcia Leon, Julian Quick, Tuhfe Göçmen, Sami Ghazouani, and Kaushik Das
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 559–578, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-559-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-559-2025, 2025
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This research develops a new method for assessing hybrid power plant (HPP) profitability, combining wind and battery systems. It addresses the need for an efficient, accurate, and comprehensive operational model by approximating a state-of-the-art energy management system (EMS) for spot market power bidding using machine learning. The approach significantly reduces computational demands while maintaining high accuracy. It thus opens new possibilities in terms of optimizing the design of HPPs.
Thuy-Hai Nguyen, Julian Quick, Pierre-Elouan Réthoré, Jean-François Toubeau, Emmanuel De Jaeger, and François Vallée
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-131, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-131, 2024
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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Current offshore wind farms have been designed to maximize their production of electricity at all times, and not to keep some reserve power in case of unexpected events on the grid. We present a new formulation for designing wind farms to maximize revenues from both energy and reserve markets. It is applied on a real-life wind farm. We show that profits are expected to increase in a significant way for wind farms designed and operated for reserve, with less energy supplied.
Jens Visbech, Tuhfe Göçmen, Özge Sinem Özçakmak, Alexander Meyer Forsting, Ásta Hannesdóttir, and Pierre-Elouan Réthoré
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1811–1826, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1811-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1811-2024, 2024
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Leading-edge erosion (LEE) can impact wind turbine aerodynamics and wind farm efficiency. This study couples LEE prediction, aerodynamic loss modeling, and wind farm flow modeling to show that LEE's effects on wake dynamics can affect overall energy production. Without preventive initiatives, the effects of LEE increase over time, resulting in significant annual energy production (AEP) loss.
Yuriy Marykovskiy, Thomas Clark, Justin Day, Marcus Wiens, Charles Henderson, Julian Quick, Imad Abdallah, Anna Maria Sempreviva, Jean-Paul Calbimonte, Eleni Chatzi, and Sarah Barber
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 883–917, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-883-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-883-2024, 2024
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This paper delves into the crucial task of transforming raw data into actionable knowledge which can be used by advanced artificial intelligence systems – a challenge that spans various domains, industries, and scientific fields amid their digital transformation journey. This article underscores the significance of cross-industry collaboration and learning, drawing insights from sectors leading in digitalisation, and provides strategic guidance for further development in this area.
Juan Pablo Murcia Leon, Hajar Habbou, Mikkel Friis-Møller, Megha Gupta, Rujie Zhu, and Kaushik Das
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 759–776, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-759-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-759-2024, 2024
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A methodology for an early design of hybrid power plants (wind, solar, PV, and Li-ion battery storage) consisting of a nested optimization that sizes the components and internal operation optimization. Traditional designs that minimize the levelized cost of energy give worse business cases and do not include storage. Optimal operation balances the increasing revenues and faster battery degradation. Battery degradation and replacement costs are needed to estimate the viability of hybrid projects.
Rafael Valotta Rodrigues, Mads Mølgaard Pedersen, Jens Peter Schøler, Julian Quick, and Pierre-Elouan Réthoré
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 321–341, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-321-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-321-2024, 2024
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The use of wind energy has been growing over the last few decades, and further increase is predicted. As the wind energy industry is starting to consider larger wind farms, the existing numerical methods for analysis of small and medium wind farms need to be improved. In this article, we have explored different strategies to tackle the problem in a feasible and timely way. The final product is a set of recommendations when carrying out trade-off analysis on large wind farms.
Julian Quick, Pierre-Elouan Rethore, Mads Mølgaard Pedersen, Rafael Valotta Rodrigues, and Mikkel Friis-Møller
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1235–1250, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1235-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1235-2023, 2023
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Wind turbine positions are often optimized to avoid wake losses. These losses depend on atmospheric conditions, such as the wind speed and direction. The typical optimization scheme involves discretizing the atmospheric inputs, then considering every possible set of these discretized inputs in every optimization iteration. This work presents stochastic gradient descent (SGD) as an alternative, which randomly samples the atmospheric conditions during every optimization iteration.
Andrew Clifton, Sarah Barber, Andrew Bray, Peter Enevoldsen, Jason Fields, Anna Maria Sempreviva, Lindy Williams, Julian Quick, Mike Purdue, Philip Totaro, and Yu Ding
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 947–974, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-947-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-947-2023, 2023
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Wind energy creates huge amounts of data, which can be used to improve plant design, raise efficiency, reduce operating costs, and ease integration. These all contribute to cheaper and more predictable energy from wind. But realising the value of data requires a digital transformation that brings
grand challengesaround data, culture, and coopetition. This paper describes how the wind energy industry could work with R&D organisations, funding agencies, and others to overcome them.
Maarten Paul van der Laan, Oscar García-Santiago, Mark Kelly, Alexander Meyer Forsting, Camille Dubreuil-Boisclair, Knut Sponheim Seim, Marc Imberger, Alfredo Peña, Niels Nørmark Sørensen, and Pierre-Elouan Réthoré
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 819–848, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-819-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-819-2023, 2023
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Offshore wind farms are more commonly installed in wind farm clusters, where wind farm interaction can lead to energy losses. In this work, an efficient numerical method is presented that can be used to estimate these energy losses. The novel method is verified with higher-fidelity numerical models and validated with measurements of an existing wind farm cluster.
Camilla Marie Nyborg, Andreas Fischer, Pierre-Elouan Réthoré, and Ju Feng
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 255–276, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-255-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-255-2023, 2023
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Our article presents a way of optimizing the wind farm operation by keeping the emitted noise level below a defined limit while maximizing the power output. This is done by switching between noise reducing operational modes. The method has been developed by using two different noise models, one more advanced than the other, to study the advantages of each model. Furthermore, the optimization method is applied to different wind farm cases.
Julian Quick, Ryan N. King, Garrett Barter, and Peter E. Hamlington
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1941–1955, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1941-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1941-2022, 2022
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Wake steering is an emerging wind power plant control strategy where upstream turbines are intentionally yawed out of alignment with the incoming wind, thereby steering wakes away from downstream turbines. Trade-offs between the gains in power production and fatigue loads induced by this control strategy are the subject of continuing investigation. In this study, we present an optimization approach for efficiently exploring the trade-offs between power and loading during wake steering.
Jana Fischereit, Kurt Schaldemose Hansen, Xiaoli Guo Larsén, Maarten Paul van der Laan, Pierre-Elouan Réthoré, and Juan Pablo Murcia Leon
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1069–1091, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1069-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1069-2022, 2022
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Wind turbines extract kinetic energy from the flow to create electricity. This induces a wake of reduced wind speed downstream of a turbine and consequently downstream of a wind farm. Different types of numerical models have been developed to calculate this effect. In this study, we compared models of different complexity, together with measurements over two wind farms. We found that higher-fidelity models perform better and the considered rapid models cannot fully capture the wake effect.
Mads M. Pedersen and Gunner C. Larsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1551–1566, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1551-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1551-2020, 2020
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In this paper, the influence of optimal wind farm control and optimal wind farm layout is investigated in terms of power production. The capabilities of the developed optimization platform is demonstrated on the Swedish offshore wind farm, Lillgrund. It shows that the expected annual energy production can be increased by 4 % by integrating the wind farm control into the design of the wind farm layout, which is 1.2 % higher than what is achieved by optimizing the layout only.
Julian Quick, Jennifer King, Ryan N. King, Peter E. Hamlington, and Katherine Dykes
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 413–426, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-413-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-413-2020, 2020
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We investigate the trade-offs in optimization of wake steering strategies, where upstream turbines are positioned to deflect wakes away from downstream turbines, with a probabilistic perspective. We identify inputs that are sensitive to uncertainty and demonstrate a realistic optimization under uncertainty for a wind power plant control strategy. Designing explicitly around uncertainty yielded control strategies that were generally less aggressive and more robust to the uncertain input.
Maarten Paul van der Laan, Søren Juhl Andersen, and Pierre-Elouan Réthoré
Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 645–651, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-645-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-645-2019, 2019
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Wind farm layouts are designed by simple engineering wake models, which are fast to compute but also include a high uncertainty. Higher-fidelity models, such as Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes, can be used to verify optimized wind farm layouts, although the computational costs are high due to the large number of cases that are needed to calculate the annual energy production. This article presents a new wind turbine control method to speed up the high-fidelity simulations by a factor of 2–3.
Mads Mølgaard Pedersen, Torben Juul Larsen, Helge Aagaard Madsen, and Gunner Christian Larsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 303–323, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-303-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-303-2019, 2019
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In this paper, detailed inflow information extracted from measurements is used to improve the accuracy of simulated wind turbine fatigue loads. Inflow information from nearby met masts is utilised as well as information from a blade-mounted flow sensor in combination with a method to compensate for the disturbance to the flow caused by the presence of the wind turbine.
Mads Mølgaard Pedersen, Torben Juul Larsen, Helge Aagaard Madsen, and Søren Juhl Andersen
Wind Energ. Sci., 3, 121–138, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-121-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-121-2018, 2018
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The wind speed measured by a flow sensor mounted on the blade of a wind turbine is disturbed by the turbine. This paper presents a method to obtain the free turbulence inflow by compensating for this disturbance.
The method is tested using numerical simulations and can be used to extract inflow information for accurate aeroelastic load simulations.
Mads M. Pedersen, Torben J. Larsen, Helge Aa. Madsen, and Gunner Chr. Larsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 2, 547–567, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2-547-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2-547-2017, 2017
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This paper presents an alternative method to evaluate power performance and loads on wind turbines using a blade-mounted flow sensor. A high correlation is found between the wind speed measured at the blades and the power/loads, and simulations indicate that it is possible to reduce the time required for power and load assessment considerably. This result, however, cannot be confirmed from the full-scale measurement study due to practical circumstances.
Dalibor Cavar, Pierre-Elouan Réthoré, Andreas Bechmann, Niels N. Sørensen, Benjamin Martinez, Frederik Zahle, Jacob Berg, and Mark C. Kelly
Wind Energ. Sci., 1, 55–70, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-1-55-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-1-55-2016, 2016
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Feasibility of a freely available CFD tool, OpenFOAM, in calculating flows of general relevance to the wind industry is investigated by comparing several aspects of its performance to a well-established in-house EllipSys3D solver. The comparison is focused on CFD solver demands regarding grid generation process and computational time.
The quality and accuracy of the achieved results are investigated by conducting the computations using identical/similar solver parameters and numerical setups..
Related subject area
Thematic area: Wind technologies | Topic: Design concepts and methods for plants, turbines, and components
A parcel-level evaluation of distributed wind opportunity in the contiguous United States
Probabilistic cost modeling as a basis for optimizing inspection and maintenance of turbine support structures in offshore wind farms
Wind Turbine Gearbox Operation Monitoring Using High-Resolution Distributed Fiber Optic Sensing
Semi-analytical methodology for fretting wear evaluation of unlubricated pitch bearing raceways under operative and non-operative periods
Effect of blade inclination angle for straight-bladed vertical-axis wind turbines
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Challenges in detecting wind turbine power loss: the effects of blade erosion, turbulence, and time averaging
Identification of operational deflection shapes of a wind turbine gearbox using fiber-optic strain sensors on a serial production end-of-line test bench
Investigation into Instantaneous Centre of Rotation for Enhanced Design of Floating Offshore Wind Turbines
Wind farm layout optimization with alignment constraints
One-to-one aeroservoelastic validation of operational loads and performance of a 2.8 MW wind turbine model in OpenFAST
State-of-the-art efficiency determination of a wind turbine drivetrain on a nacelle test bench
Identification of electro-mechanical interactions in wind turbines
A sensitivity-based estimation method for investigating control co-design relevance
Validation of aeroelastic dynamic model of active trailing edge flap system tested on a 4.3 MW wind turbine
Mesoscale modelling of North Sea wind resources with COSMO-CLM: model evaluation and impact assessment of future wind farm characteristics on cluster-scale wake losses
A novel techno-economical layout optimization tool for floating wind farm design
Hybrid-Lambda: a low-specific-rating rotor concept for offshore wind turbines
Speeding up large-wind-farm layout optimization using gradients, parallelization, and a heuristic algorithm for the initial layout
Nonlinear vibration characteristics of virtual mass systems for wind turbine blade fatigue testing
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The effect of site-specific wind conditions and individual pitch control on wear of blade bearings
A neighborhood search integer programming approach for wind farm layout optimization
Enabling control co-design of the next generation of wind power plants
Offshore wind farm optimisation: a comparison of performance between regular and irregular wind turbine layouts
A data-driven reduced-order model for rotor optimization
Grand challenges in the design, manufacture, and operation of future wind turbine systems
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling of actual eroded wind turbine blades
Grand Challenges: wind energy research needs for a global energy transition
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CFD-based curved tip shape design for wind turbine blades
Impacts of wind field characteristics and non-steady deterministic wind events on time-varying main-bearing loads
Jane Lockshin, Paula Pérez, Slater Podgorny, Michaela Sizemore, Paritosh Das, Jeffrey D. Laurence-Chasen, Paul Crook, and Caleb Phillips
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1231–1248, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1231-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1231-2025, 2025
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This study examines the potential for distributed wind energy across the contiguous United States by leveraging a novel modeling approach that utilizes a high-resolution dataset and analyzes over 150 million parcels. Modeling results reveal substantial opportunities for energy generation using distributed wind technologies. Additionally, findings reveal a substantial increase from prior modeling results in estimated technical and economic potential for distributed wind.
Muhammad Farhan, Ronald Schneider, Sebastian Thöns, and Max Gündel
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 461–481, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-461-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-461-2025, 2025
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This paper presents a probabilistic cost model for inspection and maintenance (I&M) of turbine support structures in offshore wind farms. It provides the basis for decision-theoretical optimization of I&M strategies and accounts for uncertainties in the costs. The model can be used to optimize I&M strategies at the component, structural system, and wind farm level. Additionally, a simplified method is provided for I&M optimization for individual turbine support structures.
Linqing Luo, Unai Gutierrez Santiago, and Yuxin Wu
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-1, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-1, 2025
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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We introduced a new method to monitor wind turbine gearboxes using distributed fiber optic technology. By attaching a single optical fiber to the gearbox, we tracked strain changes at high resolution, capturing gear movement, torque, and temperature in real time. This study demonstrated the link between torque and strain, enabling early fault detection. The approach offers a cost-effective way to improve gearbox reliability and reduce downtime, supporting more sustainable wind energy operations.
David Cubillas, Mireia Olave, Iñigo Llavori, Ibai Ulacia, Jon Larrañaga, Aitor Zurutuza, and Arkaitz Lopez
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 401–415, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-401-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-401-2025, 2025
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A methodology for evaluating fretting in wind turbine pitch bearing raceways is presented, and a case study is evaluated. The methodology considers the coupled effects of radial fretting and rotational fretting. As result, critical locations based on the dissipated energy are identified for the different wind speeds and the contributions of operational and non-operational times, as well as the prediction of damage shapes on the raceway for both cases, are evaluated independently and compared.
Laurence Morgan, Abbas Kazemi Amiri, William Leithead, and James Carroll
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 381–399, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-381-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-381-2025, 2025
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This paper presents a systematic study of the effect of blade inclination angle, chord distribution, and blade length on vertical-axis wind turbine performance. It shows that, for rotors of identical power production, both blade volume and rotor torque can be significantly reduced through the use of aerodynamically optimised inclined rotor blades. This demonstrates the potential of vertical rotors to reduce the cost of energy for offshore wind when compared to horizontal rotors.
Tahir H. Malik and Christian Bak
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 269–291, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-269-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-269-2025, 2025
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This research integrates custom sensors into wind turbine simulation models for improved performance monitoring utilising a turbine performance integral (TPI) method developed here. Real-world data validation demonstrates that appropriate sensor selection improves wind turbine performance monitoring. This approach addresses the need for precise performance assessments in the evolving wind energy sector, ultimately promoting sustainability and efficiency.
Tahir H. Malik and Christian Bak
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 227–243, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-227-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-227-2025, 2025
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This study investigates how wind turbine blades damaged by erosion, along with changing wind conditions, affect power output. Even minor blade damage can lead to significant energy losses, especially in turbulent winds. Using simulations, it was discovered that standard power data analysis methods, including time averaging, can hide these losses. This research highlights the need for better blade damage detection and careful wind data analysis to optimise wind farm performance.
Unai Gutierrez Santiago, Aemilius A. W. van Vondelen, Alfredo Fernández Sisón, Henk Polinder, and Jan-Willem van Wingerden
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 207–225, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-207-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-207-2025, 2025
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Knowing the loads applied to wind turbine gearboxes throughout their service life is becoming increasingly important as maintaining reliability with higher torque density demands is proving to be challenging. Operational deflection shapes identified from fiber-optic strain measurements have enabled the estimation of input torque, improving the assessment of the consumed life. Tracking operational deflection shapes recursively over time can potentially be used as an indicator of fault detection.
Katarzyna Patryniak, Maurizio Collu, Jason Jonkman, Matthew Hall, Garrett Barter, Daniel Zalkind, and Andrea Coraddu
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-167, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-167, 2025
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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This paper studies the Instantaneous Centre of Rotation (ICR) of Floating Offshore Wind Turbines (FOWTs). We present a method for computing the ICR and examine the correlations between the external loading, design features, ICR statistics, motions, and loads. We demonstrate how to apply the new insights to successfully modify the designs of the spar and semisubmersible FOWTs to reduce the loads in the moorings, the tower, and the blades, improving the ultimate strength and fatigue properties.
Paul Malisani, Tristan Bartement, and Pauline Bozonnet
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-118, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-118, 2024
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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Maritime authorities often impose turbine alignment constraints on developers to secure the navigation of boats within the wind farm, potentially creating substantial wake losses. The proposed contribution is a new Wind Farm Layout Optimization (WFLO) algorithm that considers these constraints. The proposed method optimizes the grid-alignment parameters and the turbines' location on this grid. We illustrate the algorithm's performances on a challenging example.
Kenneth Brown, Pietro Bortolotti, Emmanuel Branlard, Mayank Chetan, Scott Dana, Nathaniel deVelder, Paula Doubrawa, Nicholas Hamilton, Hristo Ivanov, Jason Jonkman, Christopher Kelley, and Daniel Zalkind
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1791–1810, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1791-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1791-2024, 2024
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This paper presents a study of the popular wind turbine design tool OpenFAST. We compare simulation results to measurements obtained from a 2.8 MW land-based wind turbine. Measured wind conditions were used to generate turbulent flow fields through several techniques. We show that successful validation of the tool is not strongly dependent on the inflow generation technique used for mean quantities of interest. The type of inflow assimilation method has a larger effect on fatigue quantities.
Hongkun Zhang, Paula Weidinger, Christian Mester, Zihang Song, Marcel Heller, Alexander Dubowik, Bernd Tegtmeier, and Karin Eustorgi
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-70, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-70, 2024
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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Drivetrain efficiency is a wind turbine’s fundamental behaviour in the energy conversion. To determine the efficiency, input and output powers need to be measured with sufficient accuracy. However, this is a very challenging task due to high complexity and lack of proper calibrated torque measurement. In cooperation with the German and Swiss national metrology institutes, the efficiency determination with state-of-the art instrumentations is demonstrated here with test processes and results.
Fiona Dominique Lüdecke, Martin Schmid, and Po Wen Cheng
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1527–1545, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1527-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1527-2024, 2024
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Large direct-drive wind turbines, with a multi-megawatt power rating, face design challenges. Moving towards a more system-oriented design approach could potentially reduce mass and costs. Exploiting the full design space, though, may invoke interaction mechanisms, which have been neglected in the past. Based on coupled simulations, this work derives a better understanding of the electro-mechanical interaction mechanisms and identifies potential for design relevance.
Jenna Iori, Carlo Luigi Bottasso, and Michael Kenneth McWilliam
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1289–1304, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1289-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1289-2024, 2024
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The controller of a wind turbine has an important role in regulating power production and avoiding structural failure. However, it is often designed after the rest of the turbine, and thus its potential is not fully exploited. An alternative is to design the structure and the controller simultaneously. This work develops a method to identify if a given turbine design can benefit from this new simultaneous design process. For example, a higher and cheaper turbine tower can be built this way.
Andrea Gamberini, Thanasis Barlas, Alejandro Gomez Gonzalez, and Helge Aagaard Madsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1229–1249, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1229-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1229-2024, 2024
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Movable surfaces on wind turbine (WT) blades, called active flaps, can reduce the cost of wind energy. However, they still need extensive testing. This study shows that the computer model used to design a WT with flaps aligns well with measurements obtained from a 3month test on a commercial WT featuring a prototype flap. Particularly during flap actuation, there were minimal differences between simulated and measured data. These findings assure the reliability of WT designs incorporating flaps.
Ruben Borgers, Marieke Dirksen, Ine L. Wijnant, Andrew Stepek, Ad Stoffelen, Naveed Akhtar, Jérôme Neirynck, Jonas Van de Walle, Johan Meyers, and Nicole P. M. van Lipzig
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 697–719, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-697-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-697-2024, 2024
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Wind farms at sea are becoming more densely clustered, which means that next to individual wind turbines interfering with each other in a single wind farm also interference between wind farms becomes important. Using a climate model, this study shows that the efficiency of wind farm clusters and the interference between the wind farms in the cluster depend strongly on the properties of the individual wind farms and are also highly sensitive to the spacing between the wind farms.
Amalia Ida Hietanen, Thor Heine Snedker, Katherine Dykes, and Ilmas Bayati
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 417–438, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-417-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-417-2024, 2024
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The layout of a floating offshore wind farm was optimized to maximize the relative net present value (NPV). By modeling power generation, losses, inter-array cables, anchors and operational costs, an increase of EUR 34.5 million in relative NPV compared to grid-based layouts was achieved. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to examine the impact of economic factors, providing valuable insights. This study contributes to enhancing the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of floating wind farms.
Daniel Ribnitzky, Frederik Berger, Vlaho Petrović, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 359–383, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-359-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-359-2024, 2024
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This paper provides an innovative blade design methodology for offshore wind turbines with very large rotors compared to their rated power, which are tailored for an increased power feed-in at low wind speeds. Rather than designing the blade for a single optimized operational point, we include the application of peak shaving in the design process and introduce a design for two tip speed ratios. We describe how enlargement of the rotor diameter can be realized to improve the value of wind power.
Rafael Valotta Rodrigues, Mads Mølgaard Pedersen, Jens Peter Schøler, Julian Quick, and Pierre-Elouan Réthoré
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 321–341, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-321-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-321-2024, 2024
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The use of wind energy has been growing over the last few decades, and further increase is predicted. As the wind energy industry is starting to consider larger wind farms, the existing numerical methods for analysis of small and medium wind farms need to be improved. In this article, we have explored different strategies to tackle the problem in a feasible and timely way. The final product is a set of recommendations when carrying out trade-off analysis on large wind farms.
Aiguo Zhou, Jinlei Shi, Tao Dong, Yi Ma, and Zhenhui Weng
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 49–64, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-49-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-49-2024, 2024
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This paper explores the nonlinear influence of the virtual mass mechanism on the test system in blade biaxial tests. The blade theory and simulation model are established to reveal the nonlinear amplitude–frequency characteristics of the blade-virtual-mass system. Increasing the amplitude of the blade or decreasing the seesaw length will lower the resonance frequency and load of the system. The virtual mass also affects the blade biaxial trajectory.
Xiaodong Zhang and Nikolay Dimitrov
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1613–1623, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1613-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1613-2023, 2023
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Wind turbine extreme response estimation based on statistical extrapolation necessitates using a small number of simulations to calculate a low exceedance probability. This is a challenging task especially if we require small prediction error. We propose the use of a Gaussian mixture model as it is capable of estimating a low exceedance probability with minor bias error, even with limited simulation data, having flexibility in modeling the distributions of varying response variables.
Arne Bartschat, Karsten Behnke, and Matthias Stammler
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1495–1510, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1495-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1495-2023, 2023
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Blade bearings are among the most stressed and challenging components of a wind turbine. Experimental investigations using different test rigs and real-size blade bearings have been able to show that rather short time intervals of only several hours of turbine operation can cause wear damage on the raceways of blade bearings. The proposed methods can be used to assess wear-critical operation conditions and to validate control strategies as well as lubricants for the application.
Juan-Andrés Pérez-Rúa, Mathias Stolpe, and Nicolaos Antonio Cutululis
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1453–1473, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1453-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1453-2023, 2023
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With the challenges of ensuring secure energy supplies and meeting climate targets, wind energy is on course to become the cornerstone of decarbonized energy systems. This work proposes a new method to optimize wind farms by means of smartly placing wind turbines within a given project area, leading to more green-energy generation. This method performs satisfactorily compared to state-of-the-art approaches in terms of the resultant annual energy production and other high-level metrics.
Andrew P. J. Stanley, Christopher J. Bay, and Paul Fleming
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1341–1350, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1341-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1341-2023, 2023
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Better wind farms can be built by simultaneously optimizing turbine locations and control, which is currently impossible or extremely challenging because of the size of the problem. The authors present a method to determine optimal wind farm control as a function of the turbine locations, which enables turbine layout and control to be optimized together by drastically reducing the size of the problem. In an example, a wind farm's performance improves by 0.8 % when optimized with the new method.
Maaike Sickler, Bart Ummels, Michiel Zaaijer, Roland Schmehl, and Katherine Dykes
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1225–1233, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1225-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1225-2023, 2023
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This paper investigates the effect of wind farm layout on the performance of offshore wind farms. A regular farm layout is compared to optimised irregular layouts. The irregular layouts have higher annual energy production, and the power production is less sensitive to wind direction. However, turbine towers require thicker walls to counteract increased fatigue due to increased turbulence levels in the farm. The study shows that layout optimisation can be used to maintain high-yield performance.
Nicholas Peters, Christopher Silva, and John Ekaterinaris
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1201–1223, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1201-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1201-2023, 2023
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Wind turbines have increasingly been leveraged as a viable approach for obtaining renewable energy. As such, it is essential that engineers have a high-fidelity, low-cost approach to modeling rotor load distributions. In this study, such an approach is proposed. This modeling approach was shown to make high-fidelity predictions at a low computational cost for rotor distributed-pressure loads as rotor geometry varied, allowing for an optimization of the rotor to be completed.
Paul Veers, Carlo L. Bottasso, Lance Manuel, Jonathan Naughton, Lucy Pao, Joshua Paquette, Amy Robertson, Michael Robinson, Shreyas Ananthan, Thanasis Barlas, Alessandro Bianchini, Henrik Bredmose, Sergio González Horcas, Jonathan Keller, Helge Aagaard Madsen, James Manwell, Patrick Moriarty, Stephen Nolet, and Jennifer Rinker
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1071–1131, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1071-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1071-2023, 2023
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Critical unknowns in the design, manufacturing, and operation of future wind turbine and wind plant systems are articulated, and key research activities are recommended.
Kisorthman Vimalakanthan, Harald van der Mijle Meijer, Iana Bakhmet, and Gerard Schepers
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 41–69, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-41-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-41-2023, 2023
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Leading edge erosion (LEE) is one of the most critical degradation mechanisms that occur with wind turbine blades. A detailed understanding of the LEE process and the impact on aerodynamic performance due to the damaged leading edge is required to optimize blade maintenance. Providing accurate modeling tools is therefore essential. This novel study assesses CFD approaches for modeling high-resolution scanned LE surfaces from an actual blade with LEE damages.
Paul Veers, Katherine Dykes, Sukanta Basu, Alessandro Bianchini, Andrew Clifton, Peter Green, Hannele Holttinen, Lena Kitzing, Branko Kosovic, Julie K. Lundquist, Johan Meyers, Mark O'Malley, William J. Shaw, and Bethany Straw
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2491–2496, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2491-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2491-2022, 2022
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Wind energy will play a central role in the transition of our energy system to a carbon-free future. However, many underlying scientific issues remain to be resolved before wind can be deployed in the locations and applications needed for such large-scale ambitions. The Grand Challenges are the gaps in the science left behind during the rapid growth of wind energy. This article explains the breadth of the unfinished business and introduces 10 articles that detail the research needs.
Alessandro Bianchini, Galih Bangga, Ian Baring-Gould, Alessandro Croce, José Ignacio Cruz, Rick Damiani, Gareth Erfort, Carlos Simao Ferreira, David Infield, Christian Navid Nayeri, George Pechlivanoglou, Mark Runacres, Gerard Schepers, Brent Summerville, David Wood, and Alice Orrell
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2003–2037, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2003-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2003-2022, 2022
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The paper is part of the Grand Challenges Papers for Wind Energy. It provides a status of small wind turbine technology in terms of technical maturity, diffusion, and cost. Then, five grand challenges that are thought to be key to fostering the development of the technology are proposed. To tackle these challenges, a series of unknowns and gaps are first identified and discussed. Improvement areas are highlighted, within which 10 key enabling actions are finally proposed to the wind community.
Mads H. Aa. Madsen, Frederik Zahle, Sergio González Horcas, Thanasis K. Barlas, and Niels N. Sørensen
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1471–1501, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1471-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1471-2022, 2022
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This work presents a shape optimization framework based on computational fluid dynamics. The design framework is used to optimize wind turbine blade tips for maximum power increase while avoiding that extra loading is incurred. The final results are shown to align well with related literature. The resulting tip shape could be mounted on already installed wind turbines as a sleeve-like solution or be conceived as part of a modular blade with tips designed for site-specific conditions.
Edward Hart, Adam Stock, George Elderfield, Robin Elliott, James Brasseur, Jonathan Keller, Yi Guo, and Wooyong Song
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1209–1226, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1209-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1209-2022, 2022
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We consider characteristics and drivers of loads experienced by wind turbine main bearings using simplified models of hub and main-bearing configurations. Influences of deterministic wind characteristics are investigated for 5, 7.5, and 10 MW turbine models. Load response to gusts and wind direction changes are also considered. Cubic load scaling is observed, veer is identified as an important driver of load fluctuations, and strong links between control and main-bearing load response are shown.
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Short summary
Wind energy developers frequently have to face some spatial restrictions at the time of designing a new wind farm due to different reasons, such as the existence of protected natural areas around the wind farm location, fishing routes, and the presence of buildings. Wind farm design has to account for these restricted areas, but sometimes this is not straightforward to achieve. We have developed a methodology that allows for different inclusion and exclusion areas in the optimization framework.
Wind energy developers frequently have to face some spatial restrictions at the time of...
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