Articles | Volume 11, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-1399-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-1399-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
27 Apr 2026
Research article |
| 27 Apr 2026
| 27 Apr 2026
Wind farm inertia forecasting accounting for wake losses, turbine-level control strategies, and operational constraints
Andre Thommessen
Laboratory for Mechatronic and Renewable Energy Systems (LMRES), Hochschule München (HM) University of Applied Sciences, 80335 Munich, Germany
Wind Energy Institute, Technical University of Munich (TUM), 85748 Garching, Munich, Germany
Abhinav Anand
Wind Energy Institute, Technical University of Munich (TUM), 85748 Garching, Munich, Germany
Wind Energy Institute, Technical University of Munich (TUM), 85748 Garching, Munich, Germany
Christoph M. Hackl
Laboratory for Mechatronic and Renewable Energy Systems (LMRES), Hochschule München (HM) University of Applied Sciences, 80335 Munich, Germany
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Iasonas Tsaklis, Vasilis Pettas, Adrien Guilloré, Nicolau Conti Gost, David Astrain-Juangarcia, Abhinav Anand, Andreas Vad, Anik H. Shah, Ion Lizarraga-Saenz, Maria Aparicio-Sanchez, Irene Eguinoa, Carlo L. Bottasso, Nikolay Dimitrov, and Tuhfe Göçmen
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-158, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-158, 2026
Preprint under review for WES
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This study provides an openly accessible dataset of wind turbine simulations and a reproducible framework for developing and comparing machine-learning models that predict turbine operation and structural loads. By covering diverse operating conditions, these resources help researchers understand turbine behaviour, test new prediction methods, and support future wind energy research. The work promotes transparent, consistent, and accessible model development.
Filippo Campagnolo, Hamit Doruk Aktan, Davide Bortolin, Simone Tamaro, Franz V. Mühle, and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci., 11, 4005–4040, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-4005-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-4005-2026, 2026
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This paper presents an open-access wind-tunnel dataset of actuated, scaled wind turbines with time-resolved measurements of loads, actuator commands, inflow conditions, and wakes. It covers multiple wake-control strategies (yaw steering, derating, Helix, dynamic yaw, Pulse, pitch control). Combined with numerical models, the dataset enables benchmarking, controller analysis, and validation of aeroelastic and wake models for wind farm control research.
Adrien Guilloré, Andreas Vad, Filippo Campagnolo, and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-191, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-191, 2026
Preprint under review for WES
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Accurate wind turbine load prediction is essential for wind farm design, optimization, and control. This study addresses both the design and implementation of location-agnostic, control-oriented load surrogate models. A key finding is that a finite level of physical complexity is sufficient for a general model to achieve converged performance. The results provide practical guidelines for reliable, computationally efficient fatigue load prediction across different implementation environments.
Abhinav Anand, Robert Braunbehrens, Adrien Guilloré, and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci., 11, 3949–3981, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-3949-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-3949-2026, 2026
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We present a new method for wind farm control based on the optimization of an economic cost function that accounts for revenue from power production and cost due to operation and maintenance. The new formulation also includes constraints to ensure a desired lifetime duration. The application to relevant scenarios shows consistently improved profit when compared to alternative formulations from the recent literature.
Matteo Baricchio, Samuel Kainz, Jan-Willem van Wingerden, and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-178, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-178, 2026
Preprint under review for WES
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Layout and control of wind farms are traditionally optimized sequentially for economic objectives, often overlooking environmental impacts. This study investigates the effect of introducing a carbon-related objective into layout, control, and layout-control co-design optimization. Results for a large-scale offshore wind farm show that using an environmental objective can achieve economic performance comparable to that of conventional economic optimization, while the resulting layouts may differ.
Hadi Hoghooghi and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-156, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-156, 2026
Preprint under review for WES
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Wind turbines operate under changing weather conditions, making it difficult to accurately estimate structural stress. This study improves a digital model by combining engineering knowledge with learning from real turbine measurements. The new approach significantly reduced prediction errors and remained reliable across different conditions. More accurate load estimates can support better turbine monitoring and maintenance planning.
Nicola Bodini, Patrick Moriarty, Regis Thedin, Paula Doubrawa, Cristina Archer, Myra Blaylock, Carlo Bottasso, Bruno Carmo, Lawrence Cheung, Camille Dubreuil, Rogier Floors, Thomas Herges, Daniel Houck, Ali Kanjari, Colleen M. Kaul, Christopher Kelley, Ru Li, Julie K. Lundquist, Desirae Major, Anh Kiet Nguyen, Mike Optis, Luan R. C. Parada, Alfredo Peña, Julian Quick, David Ricarte, William C. Radünz, Raj K. Rai, Oscar García-Santiago, Jonas Schulte, Knut S. Seim, M. Paul van der Laan, Kisorthman Vimalakanthan, and Adam Wise
Wind Energ. Sci., 11, 3107–3135, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-3107-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-3107-2026, 2026
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Predicting wind farm energy production is challenging because wind patterns are complex. We tested 16 different models against real data from a major field experiment to see which worked best. Surprisingly, the most expensive and detailed models were not always more accurate than simpler ones. We found that feeding models better weather data was the most effective way to improve accuracy. These results help the industry choose the right tools for designing more-efficient wind farms.
Hadi Hoghooghi and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-102, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-102, 2026
Manuscript not accepted for further review
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Reliable wind turbine fatigue load estimates are key to assessing structural integrity and service life. This study integrates a simplified simulation model with machine learning to enhance predictions while protecting industrial design confidentiality. It achieves DEL errors under 5 % across varied conditions and performs well on simulated and field data, supporting improved monitoring, maintenance, and lifetime assessment.
Carlo Rosario Sucameli, Marta Bertelè, Robert Braunbehrens, Filippo Campagnolo, Simone Tamaro, Paul Hulsman, and Carlo Luigi Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-93, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-93, 2026
Preprint under review for WES
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Wind turbines extract energy by slowing the air, so downstream turbines receive less wind and produce less power, a phenomenon called wake. Wind is not uniform: it varies in both speed and direction with height, also affecting downstream turbines. Using a year of measurements and simulations, we found that both effects influence the power production of downstream turbines by pushing the air sideways. We built improved models to capture these effects, enabling better wind farm control strategies.
Abhinav Anand and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci., 11, 1989–2008, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-1989-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-1989-2026, 2026
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We formulate a controller for wind turbines that has three main characteristics. First, it optimizes profit by balancing revenue from power generation with cost. Second, cost includes the effects of cyclic fatigue that, departing from most of the existing literature on control, is rigorously accounted for by an exact cycle counting on receding horizons. Third, it uses a model capable of learning and improving its performance based on measured or synthetic data.
Simone Tamaro, Davide Bortolin, Filippo Campagnolo, Franz V. Mühle, and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci., 11, 1607–1630, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-1607-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-1607-2026, 2026
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This work presents the scaled experimental validation of an active power control (APC) algorithm that improves wind farm power-tracking accuracy during turbulent wind lulls. Tests in a large low-blockage wind tunnel, including dynamic wind-direction changes, show that the method outperforms three reference APC strategies, especially under high power demand, while keeping structural fatigue low.
Marinos Manolesos, Sandrine Aubrun, Christian Bak, Paolo Bettini, Filippo Campagnolo, Alessandro Croce, Arslan Salim Dar, Michael Hölling, Stefan Ivanell, Konstantinos Kellaris, Miguel Alfonso Mendez, Pierluigi Montinari, Franz Mühle, George Papadakis, Fernardo Porté-Agel, Daniele Ragni, Sebastiano Randino, Andrea Sciacchitano, Lorenzo Schena, Gerard Schepers, Antonio Segalini, Wei Yu, and Carlo Luigi Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-51, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-51, 2026
Manuscript not accepted for further review
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As wind turbines grow to unprecedented sizes, ensuring their reliability requires advanced testing. We reviewed the current state of wind tunnel experiments, examining how scaled physical models are evaluated for wind flow, flexibility, and noise. We conclude that while laboratory testing remains essential, it is most powerful when integrated with computer simulations and real-world data. This combined approach will ultimately drive the design of more efficient and sustainable wind energy.
Andreas Vad, Adrien Guilloré, Abhinav Anand, Vasilis Pettas, Anik H. Shah, Ion Lizarraga-Saenz, Maria Aparicio-Sanchez, Irene Eguinoa, Nicolau Conti Gost, Iasonas Tsaklis, Ariane Frère, Koen W. Hermans, Joseph K. Kamau, Nikolay Dimitrov, Tuhfe Göçmen, and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-45, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-45, 2026
Revised manuscript under review for WES
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A modular, computationally efficient framework for wind‑farm response modeling is presented. It combines an engineering wake model with surrogate models trained on extensive aeroelastic simulations generated using a novel method for synthetic waked and clean inflows. The wind‑farm‑agnostic framework supports multiple turbine types and layouts, enabling accurate, low‑cost predictions for design, operation, and control.
Carlo L. Bottasso, Sandrine Aubrun, Nicolaos A. Cutululis, Julia Gottschall, Athanasios Kolios, Jakob Mann, and Paul Veers
Wind Energ. Sci., 11, 347–348, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-347-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-347-2026, 2026
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This editorial celebrates the 10th anniversary of Wind Energy Science, reflecting on a decade of rapid scientific progress and the journal’s role in advancing fundamental, interdisciplinary research. It highlights key developments in wind energy, the importance of open science and academia–industry collaboration, and emerging challenges such as data sharing and artificial intelligence. Above all, it honors the research community that has shaped the journal and looks ahead to the next decade.
Hadi Hoghooghi and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci., 11, 373–393, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-373-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-373-2026, 2026
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We formulate and demonstrate a new digital shadow (i.e., a virtual copy) for wind turbines. The digital shadow is designed in order to be capable of mirroring the response of the machine even in complex inflow conditions. Results from field measurements illustrate the ability of the shadow to estimate loads with good accuracy, even with minimal tuning.
Simone Tamaro, Filippo Campagnolo, and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 2705–2728, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-2705-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-2705-2025, 2025
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We proposed a new method for active power control that uniquely combines induction control with wake steering to maximize power tracking margins. Our methodology results in significantly improved robustness against wind fluctuations and fatigue loading when compared to the state of the art.
Simone Tamaro, Filippo Campagnolo, and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1547–1575, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1547-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1547-2024, 2024
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We develop a new simple model to predict power losses incurred by a wind turbine when it yaws out of the wind. The model reveals the effects of a number of rotor design parameters and how the turbine is governed when it yaws. The model exhibits an excellent agreement with large eddy simulations and wind tunnel measurements. We showcase the capabilities of the model by deriving the power-optimal yaw strategy for a single turbine and for a cluster of wake-interacting turbines.
Marta Bertelè, Paul J. Meyer, Carlo R. Sucameli, Johannes Fricke, Anna Wegner, Julia Gottschall, and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1419–1429, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1419-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1419-2024, 2024
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A neural observer is used to estimate shear and veer from the operational data of a large wind turbine equipped with blade load sensors. Comparison with independent measurements from a nearby met mast and profiling lidar demonstrate the ability of the
rotor as a sensorconcept to provide high-quality estimates of these inflow quantities based simply on already available standard operational data.
Jenna Iori, Carlo Luigi Bottasso, and Michael Kenneth McWilliam
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1289–1304, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1289-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1289-2024, 2024
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The controller of a wind turbine has an important role in regulating power production and avoiding structural failure. However, it is often designed after the rest of the turbine, and thus its potential is not fully exploited. An alternative is to design the structure and the controller simultaneously. This work develops a method to identify if a given turbine design can benefit from this new simultaneous design process. For example, a higher and cheaper turbine tower can be built this way.
Paul Veers, Carlo L. Bottasso, Lance Manuel, Jonathan Naughton, Lucy Pao, Joshua Paquette, Amy Robertson, Michael Robinson, Shreyas Ananthan, Thanasis Barlas, Alessandro Bianchini, Henrik Bredmose, Sergio González Horcas, Jonathan Keller, Helge Aagaard Madsen, James Manwell, Patrick Moriarty, Stephen Nolet, and Jennifer Rinker
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1071–1131, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1071-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1071-2023, 2023
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Critical unknowns in the design, manufacturing, and operation of future wind turbine and wind plant systems are articulated, and key research activities are recommended.
Helena Canet, Adrien Guilloré, and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1029–1047, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1029-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1029-2023, 2023
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We propose a new approach to design that aims at optimal trade-offs between economic and environmental goals. New environmental metrics are defined, which quantify impacts in terms of CO2-equivalent emissions produced by the turbine over its entire life cycle. For some typical onshore installations in Germany, results indicate that a 1 % increase in the cost of energy can buy about a 5 % decrease in environmental impacts: a small loss for the individual can lead to larger gains for society.
Robert Braunbehrens, Andreas Vad, and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 691–723, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-691-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-691-2023, 2023
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The paper presents a new method in which wind turbines in a wind farm act as local sensors, in this way detecting the flow that develops within the power plant. Through this technique, we are able to identify effects on the flow generated by the plant itself and by the orography of the terrain. The new method not only delivers a flow model of much improved quality but can also help in understanding phenomena that drive the farm performance.
Johan Meyers, Carlo Bottasso, Katherine Dykes, Paul Fleming, Pieter Gebraad, Gregor Giebel, Tuhfe Göçmen, and Jan-Willem van Wingerden
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2271–2306, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2271-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2271-2022, 2022
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We provide a comprehensive overview of the state of the art and the outstanding challenges in wind farm flow control, thus identifying the key research areas that could further enable commercial uptake and success. To this end, we have structured the discussion on challenges and opportunities into four main areas: (1) insight into control flow physics, (2) algorithms and AI, (3) validation and industry implementation, and (4) integrating control with system design
(co-design).
Emmanouil M. Nanos, Carlo L. Bottasso, Simone Tamaro, Dimitris I. Manolas, and Vasilis A. Riziotis
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1641–1660, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1641-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1641-2022, 2022
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A novel way of wind farm control is presented where the wake is deflected vertically to reduce interactions with downstream turbines. This is achieved by moving ballast in a floating offshore platform in order to pitch the support structure and thereby tilt the wind turbine rotor disk. The study considers the effects of this new form of wake control on the aerodynamics of the steering and wake-affected turbines, on the structure, and on the ballast motion system.
Stefan Loew and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1605–1625, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1605-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1605-2022, 2022
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This publication presents methods to improve the awareness and control of material fatigue for wind turbines. This is achieved by enhancing a sophisticated control algorithm which utilizes wind prediction information from a laser measurement device. The simulation results indicate that the novel algorithm significantly improves the economic performance of a wind turbine. This benefit is particularly high for situations when the prediction quality is low or the prediction time frame is short.
Emmanouil M. Nanos, Carlo L. Bottasso, Filippo Campagnolo, Franz Mühle, Stefano Letizia, G. Valerio Iungo, and Mario A. Rotea
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1263–1287, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1263-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1263-2022, 2022
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The paper describes the design of a scaled wind turbine in detail, for studying wakes and wake control applications in the known, controllable and repeatable conditions of a wind tunnel. The scaled model is characterized by conducting experiments in two wind tunnels, in different conditions, using different measurement equipment. Results are also compared to predictions obtained with models of various fidelity. The analysis indicates that the model fully satisfies the initial requirements.
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Short summary
We present a method to forecast inertia that accounts for wake effects in a wind farm. The approach is based on mapping forecasted site conditions to each single wind turbine in the farm through a wake model. The resulting inflow conditions are used to predict the inertia that the wind farm can provide to the grid, taking the wind turbine control strategies and operational limits into account.
We present a method to forecast inertia that accounts for wake effects in a wind farm. The...
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