Articles | Volume 7, issue 5
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1869-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1869-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
13 Sep 2022
Research article |
| 13 Sep 2022
| 13 Sep 2022
Sensitivity analysis of mesoscale simulations to physics parameterizations over the Belgian North Sea using Weather Research and Forecasting – Advanced Research WRF (WRF-ARW)
Adithya Vemuri
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Department of Environmental and Applied Fluid Dynamics, von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics, Waterloosesteenweg 72, 1640 Sint-Genesius-Rode, Belgium
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Boulevard de la Plaine 2, 1050 Ixelles, Belgium
SIM vzw, Technologiepark 48, 9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
Sophia Buckingham
Department of Environmental and Applied Fluid Dynamics, von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics, Waterloosesteenweg 72, 1640 Sint-Genesius-Rode, Belgium
Wim Munters
Department of Environmental and Applied Fluid Dynamics, von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics, Waterloosesteenweg 72, 1640 Sint-Genesius-Rode, Belgium
Jan Helsen
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Boulevard de la Plaine 2, 1050 Ixelles, Belgium
Jeroen van Beeck
Department of Environmental and Applied Fluid Dynamics, von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics, Waterloosesteenweg 72, 1640 Sint-Genesius-Rode, Belgium
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Diederik van Binsbergen, Pieter-Jan Daems, Timothy Verstraeten, Konstantinos Vratsinis, Amir Nejad, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-120, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-120, 2026
Preprint under review for WES
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A key challenge for offshore wind farms is to quantify wakes reliably from turbine measurements. This study develops a statistical approach that learns from measured turbine data how these wakes vary between wind farms and transfers that knowledge to new sites with quantified uncertainty. It also assesses how atmospheric conditions affect wake recovery. The results show that stable conditions lead to slower recovery and larger predicted losses, while unstable conditions support faster recovery.
Rebeca Marini, Konstantinos Vratsinis, Pieter-Jan Daems, Timothy Verstraeten, Etienne Cheynet, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-117, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-117, 2026
Preprint under review for WES
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We studied which environmental conditions affect the power produced by a single wind turbine without interference from nearby turbines. Using measured turbine and weather data together with machine learning, we found that the difference between air and sea temperature has a meaningful influence but is not included in commonly used power corrections. This could improve power predictions and wind resource assessments, and the method can be extended to larger groups of turbines.
Faras Jamil, Cedric Peeters, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-83, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-83, 2026
Preprint under review for WES
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Maintenance costs are a major challenge for the wind energy industry. This research introduces an automated artificial intelligence method to monitor drivetrain health. A model trained on healthy data analyses vibration patterns to identify deviations signalling potential faults. It is validated on offshore farms and has detected all 19 confirmed fault cases. It provides a single health indicator to help operators plan efficient maintenance strategies, reducing the Levelised Cost of Energy.
Kayacan Kestel, Xavier Chesterman, Donatella Zappalá, Simon Watson, Mingxin Li, Edward Hart, James Carroll, Yolanda Vidal, Amir R. Nejad, Shawn Sheng, Yi Guo, Matthias Stammler, Florian Wirsing, Ahmed Saleh, Nico Gregarek, Thao Baszenski, Thomas Decker, Martin Knops, Georg Jacobs, Benjamin Lehmann, Florian König, Ines Pereira, Pieter-Jan Daems, Cédric Peeters, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 11, 2103–2155, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-2103-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-2103-2026, 2026
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Wind energy use has been rapidly expanding worldwide in recent years. Driven by global decarbonization goals and energy security concerns, this growth is expected to continue. To achieve these targets, production costs must decrease, with operation and maintenance being major contributors. This paper reviews current and emerging technologies for monitoring wind turbine drivetrains, and highlights key academic and industrial challenges that may hinder progress.
Konstantinos Vratsinis, Rebeca Marini, Pieter-Jan Daems, Lukas Pauscher, Jeroen van Beeck, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 11, 1803–1820, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-1803-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-1803-2026, 2026
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Using data collected over 13 months at an offshore wind farm, our study shows that a wind turbine’s position within the farm influences its energy output at a given nacelle-measured wind speed. Front-row turbines respond differently to similar wind speeds and turbulence than those further back. This finding suggests that current methods for characterizing inflow conditions may not fully capture actual wind behavior, underscoring the need for improved performance analysis techniques.
Matthias Stammler, Faras Jamil, Xinrun Liu, Jens Jo Matthys, Nikhil Sudhakaran, Cédric Peeters, Asger Bech Abrahamsen, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-81, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-81, 2026
Preprint under review for WES
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This study compares traditional and artificial intelligence supported methods for detecting damage in rotating machine parts. Bearings were tested under controlled conditions to see how well each method identified developing problems. The artificial intelligence supported method detected damage as early as, or earlier than, established techniques while needing far less expert attention. This supports automated monitoring of wind turbines, enabling earlier maintenance and lower operating costs.
Xavier Chesterman, Ann Nowé, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 11, 1163–1183, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-1163-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-1163-2026, 2026
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This paper presents a sensor-error-robust methodology for failure prediction in wind turbines. Sensor malfunctions pose a significant challenge for data-driven prognostic approaches. The proposed method employs a masked autoencoder that enables selective deactivation of signals. Evaluation is done using data from several operational offshore wind farms. Results demonstrate that the model effectively mitigates the impact of sensor errors while maintaining high accuracy in failure prediction.
Jakob Gebel, Pieter-Jan Daems, Diederik van Binsbergen, Veronica Liverud Krathe, Amir R. Nejad, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-13, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-13, 2026
Preprint under review for WES
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The study examines two critical turbine components: the blades and the main bearings. Computer simulations are used to model how turbines respond to disturbed wind from nearby turbines. The analysis is carried out in two stages: first, different turbine spacings and alignments are tested, and second, the method is applied to a real offshore wind farm in the Belgian North Sea.
Ivo Vervlimmeren, Xavier Chesterman, Timothy Verstraeten, Ann Nowé, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 2615–2637, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-2615-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-2615-2025, 2025
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We introduce a new method to refine failure prediction for wind turbines, leading to better and more efficient alarming. We do this by filtering detected anomalies based on the anomalies from the whole fleet. We compare submethods and find one that removes up to 65 % of detected anomalies while leaving the failure-predicting ones. We also detail how we trained the model that generated these anomalies and discuss the construction of the scalable pipeline that was used to deploy such models.
Alexandros Palatos-Plexidas, Simone Gremmo, Jeroen van Beeck, Lesley De Cruz, and Wim Munters
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-202, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-202, 2025
Revised manuscript under review for WES
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In this study, we use advanced weather simulations, real-world measurements, and satellite images, showing that modeling wind farm effects improves accuracy, especially in areas influenced by turbine wakes. Focusing on a large wind farm cluster in the North Sea, we also investigate different atmospheric conditions. These findings help quantify the influence of large wind farm clusters, improve predictions, and support planning for future wind energy development.
Faras Jamil, Cédric Peeters, Timothy Verstraeten, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1963–1978, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1963-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1963-2025, 2025
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A hybrid fault detection method is proposed, which combines physical domain knowledge with machine learning models to automatically detect mechanical faults in wind turbine drivetrain components. It offers detailed insights for experts while giving operators a high-level overview of the machine's health to assist in planning effective maintenance strategies. It was validated on multiple years of wind farm data and the potential faults were accurately predicted, which was confirmed by experts.
Simon Daenens, Timothy Verstraeten, Pieter-Jan Daems, Ann Nowé, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1137–1152, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1137-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1137-2025, 2025
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This study presents a novel model for predicting wind turbine power output at a high temporal resolution in wind farms using a hybrid graph neural network (GNN) and long short-term memory (LSTM) architecture. By modeling the wind farm as a graph, the model captures both spatial and temporal dynamics, outperforming traditional power curve methods. Integrated with a normal behavior model (NBM) framework, the model effectively identifies and analyzes power loss events.
Stijn Ally, Timothy Verstraeten, Pieter-Jan Daems, Ann Nowé, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 779–812, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-779-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-779-2025, 2025
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Wind farms are crucial for a sustainable energy future. However, their power can fluctuate significantly due to changing weather conditions, which complexly affect their power generation. This paper presents a novel machine-learning-based method to enhance wind farm power predictions, enabling improved power scheduling, trading and grid balancing. This makes wind power more valuable and easier to integrate into the energy system.
Jakob Gebel, Ashkan Rezaei, Adithya Vemuri, Veronica Liverud Krathe, Pieter-Jan Daems, Jens Jo Matthys, Jonathan Sterckx, Konstantinos Vratsinis, Kayacan Kestel, Amir R. Nejad, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-173, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-173, 2025
Preprint under review for WES
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A simulation model of a deployed offshore wind turbine was developed using real-world measurement data. The method shows how to obtain, update and validate a simulation model and allows to improve the efficiency and longevity of offshore wind turbines and support operation and maintenance decisions. Simulations were conducted to analyze the effects of turbulence and wind patterns on turbine lifespan, providing insights to improve maintenance planning and reduce operational costs.
Rebeca Marini, Konstantinos Vratsinis, Kayacan Kestel, Jonathan Sterckx, Jens Matthys, Pieter-Jan Daems, Timothy Verstraeten, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-9, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-9, 2025
Revised manuscript not accepted
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This work evaluated the wind profile in a Belgian offshore zone. The estimated wind profile was made using measurements that allow for reconstruction at heights along the rotor area. The IEC standard defines these profiles as a 1/7th power law, which is proven not to occur 100 % of the time. It is also possible to infer that there will be differences when using different wind profiles for load assessment, as more realistic profiles can lead to a better assessment of the wind turbine's lifetime.
Tsvetelina Ivanova, Sara Porchetta, Sophia Buckingham, Gertjan Glabeke, Jeroen van Beeck, and Wim Munters
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 245–268, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-245-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-245-2025, 2025
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This study explores how wind and power predictions can be improved by introducing local forcing of measurement data in a numerical weather model while taking into account the presence of neighboring wind farms. Practical implications for the wind energy industry include insights for informed offshore wind farm planning and decision-making strategies using open-source models, even under adverse weather conditions.
Majid Bastankhah, Marcus Becker, Matthew Churchfield, Caroline Draxl, Jay Prakash Goit, Mehtab Khan, Luis A. Martinez Tossas, Johan Meyers, Patrick Moriarty, Wim Munters, Asim Önder, Sara Porchetta, Eliot Quon, Ishaan Sood, Nicole van Lipzig, Jan-Willem van Wingerden, Paul Veers, and Simon Watson
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 2171–2174, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2171-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2171-2024, 2024
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Dries Allaerts was born on 19 May 1989 and passed away at his home in Wezemaal, Belgium, on 10 October 2024 after battling cancer. Dries started his wind energy career in 2012 and had a profound impact afterward on the community, in terms of both his scientific realizations and his many friendships and collaborations in the field. His scientific acumen, open spirit of collaboration, positive attitude towards life, and playful and often cheeky sense of humor will be deeply missed by many.
Diederik van Binsbergen, Pieter-Jan Daems, Timothy Verstraeten, Amir R. Nejad, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1507–1526, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1507-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1507-2024, 2024
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Wind farm yield assessment often relies on analytical wake models. Calibrating these models can be challenging due to the stochastic nature of wind. We developed a calibration framework that performs a multi-phase optimization on the tuning parameters using time series SCADA data. This yields a parameter distribution that more accurately reflects reality than a single value. Results revealed notable variation in resultant parameter values, influenced by nearby wind farms and coastal effects.
Sara Porchetta, Michael F. Howland, Ruben Borgers, Sophia Buckingham, and Wim Munters
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-58, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-58, 2024
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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This study delves into how hourly and monthly variations of wakes of a newly constructed wind farm cluster impacts adjacent existing farms. Using a simulation of a full year, it compares results from both a numerical weather prediction model and different fast-running engineering models. The results reveal significant differences in wake predictions, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Such insights are important for making informed decisions for the siting and design of future wind turbines.
Xavier Chesterman, Timothy Verstraeten, Pieter-Jan Daems, Ann Nowé, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 893–924, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-893-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-893-2023, 2023
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This paper reviews and implements several techniques that can be used for condition monitoring and failure prediction for wind turbines using SCADA data. The focus lies on techniques that respond to requirements of the industry, e.g., robustness, transparency, computational efficiency, and maintainability. The end result of this research is a pipeline that can accurately detect three types of failures, i.e., generator bearing failures, generator fan failures, and generator stator failures.
Kartik Venkatraman, Trond-Ola Hågbo, Sophia Buckingham, and Knut Erik Teigen Giljarhus
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 85–108, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-85-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-85-2023, 2023
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This paper is focused on the impact of modeling different effects, such as forest canopy and Coriolis forces, on the wind resource over a complex terrain site located near Perdigão, Portugal. A numerical model is set up and results are compared with field measurements. The results show that including a forest canopy improves the predictions close to the ground at some locations on the site, while the model with inflow from a precursor performed better at other locations.
Florian Hammer, Sarah Barber, Sebastian Remmler, Federico Bernardoni, Kartik Venkatraman, Gustavo A. Díez Sánchez, Alain Schubiger, Trond-Ola Hågbo, Sophia Buckingham, and Knut Erik Giljarhus
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2022-114, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2022-114, 2023
Preprint withdrawn
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We further enhanced a knowledge base for choosing the most optimal wind resource assessment tool. For this, we compared different simulation tools for the Perdigão site in Portugal, in terms of accuracy and costs. In total five different simulation tools were compared. We found that with a high degree of automatisation and a high experience level of the modeller a cost effective and accurate prediction based on RANS could be achieved. LES simulations are still mainly reserved for academia.
Amir R. Nejad, Jonathan Keller, Yi Guo, Shawn Sheng, Henk Polinder, Simon Watson, Jianning Dong, Zian Qin, Amir Ebrahimi, Ralf Schelenz, Francisco Gutiérrez Guzmán, Daniel Cornel, Reza Golafshan, Georg Jacobs, Bart Blockmans, Jelle Bosmans, Bert Pluymers, James Carroll, Sofia Koukoura, Edward Hart, Alasdair McDonald, Anand Natarajan, Jone Torsvik, Farid K. Moghadam, Pieter-Jan Daems, Timothy Verstraeten, Cédric Peeters, and Jan Helsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 387–411, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-387-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-387-2022, 2022
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This paper presents the state-of-the-art technologies and development trends of wind turbine drivetrains – the energy conversion systems transferring the kinetic energy of the wind to electrical energy – in different stages of their life cycle: design, manufacturing, installation, operation, lifetime extension, decommissioning and recycling. The main aim of this article is to review the drivetrain technology development as well as to identify future challenges and research gaps.
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Short summary
The sensitivity of the WRF mesoscale modeling framework in accurately representing and predicting wind-farm-level environmental variables for three extreme weather events over the Belgian North Sea is investigated in this study. The overall results indicate highly sensitive simulation results to the type and combination of physics parameterizations and the type of the weather phenomena, with indications that scale-aware physics parameterizations better reproduce wind-related variables.
The sensitivity of the WRF mesoscale modeling framework in accurately representing and...
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