Articles | Volume 7, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-387-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-387-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Review article
| 
21 Feb 2022
Review article |
| 21 Feb 2022
| 21 Feb 2022
Wind turbine drivetrains: state-of-the-art technologies and future development trends
Marine Technology Department, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
Jonathan Keller
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, USA
Yi Guo
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, USA
Shawn Sheng
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, USA
Henk Polinder
Technische Universiteit Delft, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, the Netherlands
Simon Watson
Technische Universiteit Delft, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, the Netherlands
Jianning Dong
Technische Universiteit Delft, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, the Netherlands
Zian Qin
Technische Universiteit Delft, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, the Netherlands
Amir Ebrahimi
Institute for Drive Systems and Power Electronics, Leibniz University Hannover, Postfach 6009, 30060 Hannover, Germany
Ralf Schelenz
Center for Wind Power Drives (CWD), RWTH Aachen University, Campus-Boulevard 61, 52074 Aachen, Germany
Francisco Gutiérrez Guzmán
Institute for Machine Elements and Systems Engineering (MSE), RWTH Aachen University, Schinkelstrasse 10, 52062 Aachen, Germany
Daniel Cornel
Institute for Machine Elements and Systems Engineering (MSE), RWTH Aachen University, Schinkelstrasse 10, 52062 Aachen, Germany
Reza Golafshan
Institute for Machine Elements and Systems Engineering (MSE), RWTH Aachen University, Schinkelstrasse 10, 52062 Aachen, Germany
Georg Jacobs
Institute for Machine Elements and Systems Engineering (MSE), RWTH Aachen University, Schinkelstrasse 10, 52062 Aachen, Germany
Bart Blockmans
LMSD Division, Mechanical Engineering Department, KU Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium
Core Lab Dynamics of Mechanical and Mechatronic Systems, Flanders Make, Heverlee, Belgium
Jelle Bosmans
LMSD Division, Mechanical Engineering Department, KU Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium
Core Lab Dynamics of Mechanical and Mechatronic Systems, Flanders Make, Heverlee, Belgium
Bert Pluymers
LMSD Division, Mechanical Engineering Department, KU Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium
Core Lab Dynamics of Mechanical and Mechatronic Systems, Flanders Make, Heverlee, Belgium
James Carroll
Wind Energy and Control Centre, Electronic And Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, 16 Richmond St, Glasgow G1 1XQ, United Kingdom
Sofia Koukoura
Wind Energy and Control Centre, Electronic And Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, 16 Richmond St, Glasgow G1 1XQ, United Kingdom
Edward Hart
Wind Energy and Control Centre, Electronic And Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, 16 Richmond St, Glasgow G1 1XQ, United Kingdom
Alasdair McDonald
Institute for Energy Systems, School of Engineering, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Anand Natarajan
DTU Wind Energy, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
Jone Torsvik
Equinor ASA, Sandslivegen 90, 5254 Sandsli, Norway
Farid K. Moghadam
Marine Technology Department, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
Pieter-Jan Daems
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, OWI-Lab, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
Timothy Verstraeten
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, OWI-Lab, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
Cédric Peeters
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, OWI-Lab, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
Jan Helsen
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, OWI-Lab, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
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Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2022-75, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2022-75, 2023
Preprint withdrawn
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In the last decades, the size of wind turbines has continuously increased. The increasing rotor diameter results in higher loads acting on the main bearings of wind turbines. In this study, it is discussed how these loads can be estimated using accessible sensor signals and regression models. Therefore, measurement data has been acquired on a full-scale wind turbine test bench. It is shown that linear regression using displacement signals provides good accuracy in estimating main bearing loads.
Ishaan Sood, Elliot Simon, Athanasios Vitsas, Bart Blockmans, Gunner C. Larsen, and Johan Meyers
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2469–2489, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2469-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2469-2022, 2022
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Adithya Vemuri, Sophia Buckingham, Wim Munters, Jan Helsen, and Jeroen van Beeck
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1869–1888, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1869-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1869-2022, 2022
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The sensitivity of the WRF mesoscale modeling framework in accurately representing and predicting wind-farm-level environmental variables for three extreme weather events over the Belgian North Sea is investigated in this study. The overall results indicate highly sensitive simulation results to the type and combination of physics parameterizations and the type of the weather phenomena, with indications that scale-aware physics parameterizations better reproduce wind-related variables.
Edward Hart, Elisha de Mello, and Rob Dwyer-Joyce
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1533–1550, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1533-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1533-2022, 2022
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This paper is the second in a two-part study on lubrication in wind turbine main bearings. Investigations are conducted concerning lubrication in the double-row spherical roller main bearing of a 1.5 MW wind turbine. This includes effects relating to temperature, starvation, grease-thickener interactions and possible non-steady EHL effects. Results predict that the modelled main bearing would be expected to operate under mixed lubrication conditions for a non-negligible proportion of its life.
Edward Hart, Adam Stock, George Elderfield, Robin Elliott, James Brasseur, Jonathan Keller, Yi Guo, and Wooyong Song
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1209–1226, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1209-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1209-2022, 2022
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We consider characteristics and drivers of loads experienced by wind turbine main bearings using simplified models of hub and main-bearing configurations. Influences of deterministic wind characteristics are investigated for 5, 7.5, and 10 MW turbine models. Load response to gusts and wind direction changes are also considered. Cubic load scaling is observed, veer is identified as an important driver of load fluctuations, and strong links between control and main-bearing load response are shown.
Edward Hart, Elisha de Mello, and Rob Dwyer-Joyce
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1021–1042, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1021-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1021-2022, 2022
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This work provides an accessible introduction to elastohydrodynamic lubrication theory as a precursor to analysis of lubrication in a wind turbine main bearing. Fundamental concepts, derivations and formulas are presented, followed by the more advanced topics of starvation, non-steady effects, surface roughness interactions and grease lubrication.
Unai Gutierrez Santiago, Alfredo Fernández Sisón, Henk Polinder, and Jan-Willem van Wingerden
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 505–521, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-505-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-505-2022, 2022
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The gearbox is one of the main contributors to the overall cost of wind energy, and it is acknowledged that we still do not fully understand its loading. The study presented in this paper develops a new alternative method to measure input rotor torque in wind turbine gearboxes, overcoming the drawbacks related to measuring on a rotating shaft. The method presented in this paper could make measuring gearbox torque more cost-effective, which would facilitate its adoption in serial wind turbines.
W. Dheelibun Remigius and Anand Natarajan
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 1401–1412, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1401-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1401-2021, 2021
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A novel inverse-problem-based methodology estimates drivetrain main-shaft torsional stiffness and displacement by using high-frequency SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) measurements without an aeroelastic design basis. It involves Tikhonov regularisation for regularising the measurement data and the collage method for system identification. The estimated quantities can be further used to identify the site-specific torsional loads and the damage-equivalent load of the main shaft.
Freia Harzendorf, Ralf Schelenz, and Georg Jacobs
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 571–584, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-571-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-571-2021, 2021
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Making wind turbines more reliable over their lifetime is an important goal for improving wind turbine technology. The wind turbine drivetrain has a major influence on turbine reliability. This paper presents an approach that will help to identify holistically better drivetrain concepts in an early product design phase from an operational perspective as it is able to estimate and assess drivetrain-concept-specific inherent risks in the operational phase.
Christian Ingenhorst, Georg Jacobs, Laura Stößel, Ralf Schelenz, and Björn Juretzki
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 427–440, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-427-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-427-2021, 2021
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Wind farm sites in complex terrain are subject to local wind phenomena, which are difficult to quantify but have a huge impact on a wind turbine's annual energy production. Therefore, a wind sensor was applied on an unmanned aerial vehicle and validated against stationary wind sensors with good agreement. A measurement over complex terrain showed local deviations from the mean wind speed of approx. ± 30 %, indicating the importance of an extensive site evaluation to reduce investment risk.
Daniel Cornel, Francisco Gutiérrez Guzmán, Georg Jacobs, and Stephan Neumann
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 367–376, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-367-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-367-2021, 2021
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Roller bearing failures in wind turbines' gearboxes lead to long downtimes and high repair costs. This paper should form a basis for the implementation of a predictive maintenance system. Therefore an acoustic-emission-based condition monitoring system is applied to roller bearing test rigs. The system has shown that a damaged surface can be detected at least ~ 4 % (8 h, regarding the time to failure) and possibly up to ~ 50 % (130 h) earlier than by using the vibration-based system.
Lucas Blickwedel, Freia Harzendorf, Ralf Schelenz, and Georg Jacobs
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 177–190, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-177-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-177-2021, 2021
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Revenues from the operation of wind turbines in Germany will be insecure in the future due to the expiration of federal support. Alternative ways of selling electricity are usually based on exchange prices. Therefore, the long-term revenue potential of wind turbines is assessed based on levelized revenue of energy (LROE), using a new forecasting model and open-source data. Results show how different expansion scenarios and emission prices may affect profitability of future plants.
James Stirling, Edward Hart, and Abbas Kazemi Amiri
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 15–31, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-15-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-15-2021, 2021
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This paper considers the modelling of wind turbine main bearings using analytical models. The validity of simplified analytical representations is explored by comparing main-bearing force reactions with those obtained from higher-fidelity 3D finite-element models. Results indicate that good agreement can be achieved between the analytical and 3D models in the case of both non-moment-reacting (such as for a spherical roller bearing) and moment-reacting (such as a tapered roller bearing) set-ups.
Bedassa R. Cheneka, Simon J. Watson, and Sukanta Basu
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1731–1741, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1731-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1731-2020, 2020
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Wind power ramps have important characteristics for the planning and integration of wind power production into electricity. We present a new and simple algorithm that detects wind power ramp characteristics. The algorithm classifies wind power production into ramp-ups, ramp-downs, and no-ramps; and it can detect wind power ramp characteristics that show a temporal increasing (decreasing) power capacity.
Mark Schelbergen, Peter C. Kalverla, Roland Schmehl, and Simon J. Watson
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1097–1120, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1097-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1097-2020, 2020
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We have presented a methodology for including multiple wind profile shapes in a wind resource description that are identified using a data-driven approach. These shapes go beyond the height range for which conventional wind profile relationships are developed. Moreover, they include non-monotonic shapes such as low-level jets. We demonstrated this methodology for an on- and offshore reference location using DOWA data and efficiently estimated the annual energy production of a pumping AWE system.
Yasir Shkara, Martin Cardaun, Ralf Schelenz, and Georg Jacobs
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 141–154, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-141-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-141-2020, 2020
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A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solver is coupled with a structure solver to predict the dynamic response of a horizontal axis wind turbine structure. CFD provides much more accurate and more realistic aerodynamic loads that cannot be achieved by traditional methods such as blade element momentum theory. As a result, the aeroelastic response of the wind turbine structure, taking into account blade–tower interactions, is described in more detail.
Edward Hart, Benjamin Clarke, Gary Nicholas, Abbas Kazemi Amiri, James Stirling, James Carroll, Rob Dwyer-Joyce, Alasdair McDonald, and Hui Long
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 105–124, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-105-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-105-2020, 2020
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This paper presents a review of existing theory and practice relating to main bearings for wind turbines. Topics covered include wind conditions and resulting rotor loads, main-bearing models, damage mechanisms and fault detection procedures.
Laura Stößel, Esther Kohl, Björn Roscher, Ralf Schelenz, and Georg Jacobs
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2019-79, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2019-79, 2019
Preprint withdrawn
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The potential of power generation from biomass to cover the offset between local power demand and supply by solar and wind power is investigated. A model is introduced to simulate power production time series in 15-minute resolution from wind, PV and biomass. The analysis is conducted on the example of five exemplary rural municipalities, each representing one category of rural municipalities in Germany.
Jonathan Keller, Yi Guo, Zhiwei Zhang, and Doug Lucas
Wind Energ. Sci., 3, 947–960, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-947-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-947-2018, 2018
Short summary
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The US Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and industry partners successfully demonstrated a new gearbox design using preloaded tapered roller bearings in the planetary section. The new gearbox design demonstrated improved planetary load-sharing characteristics in the presence of rotor pitch and yaw moments, resulting in a predicted gearbox lifetime that is 3.5 times greater than the previous conventional design with cylindrical roller bearings.
Cian J. Desmond, Simon J. Watson, Christiane Montavon, and Jimmy Murphy
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2017-34, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2017-34, 2017
Revised manuscript not accepted
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The flow over densely forested terrain under neutral and non-neutral conditions is considered using commercially available Computational Fluid Dynamics software. Results are validated against data from a site in North-Eastern France. It is shown that the effects of both neutral and stable atmospheric stratifications can be modelled numerically using state of the art methodologies whilst unstable stratifications remain elusive.
G. A. M. van Kuik, J. Peinke, R. Nijssen, D. Lekou, J. Mann, J. N. Sørensen, C. Ferreira, J. W. van Wingerden, D. Schlipf, P. Gebraad, H. Polinder, A. Abrahamsen, G. J. W. van Bussel, J. D. Sørensen, P. Tavner, C. L. Bottasso, M. Muskulus, D. Matha, H. J. Lindeboom, S. Degraer, O. Kramer, S. Lehnhoff, M. Sonnenschein, P. E. Sørensen, R. W. Künneke, P. E. Morthorst, and K. Skytte
Wind Energ. Sci., 1, 1–39, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-1-1-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-1-1-2016, 2016
Related subject area
Operation, condition monitoring, and maintenance
Floating wind turbines: marine operations challenges and opportunities
Analysing the effectiveness of different offshore maintenance base options for floating wind farms
Data-driven farm-wide fatigue estimation on jacket-foundation OWTs for multiple SHM setups
Identification of wind turbine main-shaft torsional loads from high-frequency SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) measurements using an inverse-problem approach
On sensor optimisation for structural health monitoring robust to environmental variations
Effect of individual blade pitch angle misalignment on the remaining useful life of wind turbines
Rahul Chitteth Ramachandran, Cian Desmond, Frances Judge, Jorrit-Jan Serraris, and Jimmy Murphy
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 903–924, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-903-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-903-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Marine operations represent a significant proportion of costs involved in the installation, operation, maintenance and decommissioning phases of a floating wind farm. The floating-wind industry is reaching array-scale deployments, and it is very important to optimize the various marine operations involved in each of these phases. This paper analyses the various challenges in the path and opportunities for encountering them by the transfer of technical know-how from similar offshore sectors.
Nadezda Avanessova, Anthony Gray, Iraklis Lazakis, R. Camilla Thomson, and Giovanni Rinaldi
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 887–901, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-887-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-887-2022, 2022
Short summary
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This study analyses two logistical strategies that could be considered for operation and maintenance of floating wind farms. The results show that the OPEX for the strategy with an offshore maintenance base (OMB) is 5 %–8 % lower than with a service operation vessel. When CAPEX and the net present value are taken into account, then the fixed costs associated with building the OMB have a significant impact on selecting a preferred strategy.
Francisco d N Santos, Nymfa Noppe, Wout Weijtjens, and Christof Devriendt
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 299–321, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-299-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-299-2022, 2022
Short summary
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The estimation of fatigue in offshore wind turbine is highly relevant, as it can help extend the lifetime of these assets. This article attempts to answer this issue by developing a methodology based on artificial intelligence and data collected by sensors installed in real-world turbines. Good results are obtained, and this methodology is further used to learn the value of eight different sensor setups and employed in a real-world wind farm with 48 wind turbines.
W. Dheelibun Remigius and Anand Natarajan
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 1401–1412, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1401-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1401-2021, 2021
Short summary
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A novel inverse-problem-based methodology estimates drivetrain main-shaft torsional stiffness and displacement by using high-frequency SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) measurements without an aeroelastic design basis. It involves Tikhonov regularisation for regularising the measurement data and the collage method for system identification. The estimated quantities can be further used to identify the site-specific torsional loads and the damage-equivalent load of the main shaft.
Tingna Wang, David J. Wagg, Keith Worden, and Robert J. Barthorpe
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 1107–1116, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1107-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1107-2021, 2021
Short summary
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This paper illustrates two sensor placement optimisation techniques designed for damage detection while taking into account temperature effects. A case study of a glider wing shows that, compared to the normalised method using the temperature label, the linear method that did not require temperature labels provided features that were less sensitive to damage. However, it is cheaper and more convenient to extract temperature-robust features in practical engineering.
Matthias Saathoff, Malo Rosemeier, Thorsten Kleinselbeck, and Bente Rathmann
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 1079–1087, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1079-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1079-2021, 2021
Short summary
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Wind turbine blade misalignments were measured. About 38 % of the turbines measured have been operating outside the accepted misalignment range. This research quantifies the effect of the measured misalignment on the turbine lifetime by means of simulations. The lifetimes of the main frame at the tower top and the tower base were affected most by a blade misalignment. To avoid a lifetime reduction, blade misalignments should be identified and corrected as early as possible during the lifetime.
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Short summary
This paper presents the state-of-the-art technologies and development trends of wind turbine drivetrains – the energy conversion systems transferring the kinetic energy of the wind to electrical energy – in different stages of their life cycle: design, manufacturing, installation, operation, lifetime extension, decommissioning and recycling. The main aim of this article is to review the drivetrain technology development as well as to identify future challenges and research gaps.
This paper presents the state-of-the-art technologies and development trends of wind turbine...
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