Articles | Volume 7, issue 5
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1847-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1847-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
12 Sep 2022
Research article |
| 12 Sep 2022
| 12 Sep 2022
Scaling effects of fixed-wing ground-generation airborne wind energy systems
Institute for Integrated Energy Systems, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
Martin Dörenkämper
Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy Systems (IWES), Oldenburg, Germany
Jochem De Schutter
Systems Control and Optimization Laboratory IMTEK, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
Curran Crawford
Institute for Integrated Energy Systems, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
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Markus Sommerfeld, Martin Dörenkämper, Jochem De Schutter, and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1153–1178, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1153-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1153-2023, 2023
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This study investigates the performance of pumping-mode ground-generation airborne wind energy systems by determining power-optimal flight trajectories based on realistic, k-means clustered, vertical wind velocity profiles. These profiles, derived from mesoscale weather simulations at an offshore and an onshore site in Europe, are incorporated into an optimal control model that maximizes average cycle power by optimizing the kite's trajectory.
Markus Sommerfeld, Martin Dörenkämper, Gerald Steinfeld, and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 563–580, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-563-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-563-2019, 2019
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Airborne wind energy systems aim to operate at altitudes above conventional wind turbines where reliable high-resolution wind data are scarce. Wind measurements and computational simulations both have advantages and disadvantages when assessing the wind resource at such heights. This article investigates whether assimilating measurements into the model generates a more accurate wind data set up to 1100 m. These wind data sets are used to estimate optimal AWES operating altitudes and power.
Johanna Borowski, Sandra Schwegmann, Kerstin Avila, and Martin Dörenkämper
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-117, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-117, 2025
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Assessing the wind resource and mitigating its associated uncertainties are crucial to wind farm profitability. The study quantifies the uncertainty due to inter-annual variability, averaging 6.5 % and ranging from 1 % to 14 %, using long-term, quality-controlled wind measurements from tall met masts in terrain of varying complexity. Further, the results indicate that machine learning models are beneficial to mitigate the impact of inter-annual variability in heterogeneous and complex terrain.
Bjarke T. E. Olsen, Andrea N. Hahmann, Nicolas G. Alonso-de-Linaje, Mark Žagar, and Martin Dörenkämper
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 4499–4533, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-4499-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-4499-2025, 2025
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Low-level jets (LLJs) are strong winds in the lower atmosphere that are important for wind energy as turbines get taller. This study compares a weather model (WRF) with real data across five North and Baltic Sea sites. Adjusting the model improved accuracy over the widely used ERA5. In key offshore regions, LLJs occur 10–15 % of the time and significantly boost wind power, especially in spring and summer, contributing up to 30 % of total capacity in some areas.
Rad Haghi and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 2039–2062, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2039-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2039-2024, 2024
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This journal paper focuses on developing surrogate models for predicting the damage equivalent load (DEL) on wind turbines without needing extensive aeroelastic simulations. The study emphasizes the development of a sequential machine learning architecture for this purpose. The study also explores implementing simplified wake models and transfer learning to enhance the models' prediction capabilities in various wind conditions.
Lukas Vollmer, Balthazar Arnoldus Maria Sengers, and Martin Dörenkämper
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1689–1693, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1689-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1689-2024, 2024
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This study proposes a modification to a well-established wind farm parameterization used in mesoscale models. The wind speed at the location of the turbine, which is used to calculate power and thrust, is corrected to approximate the free wind speed. Results show that the modified parameterization produces more accurate estimates of the turbine’s power curve.
Markus Sommerfeld, Martin Dörenkämper, Jochem De Schutter, and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1153–1178, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1153-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1153-2023, 2023
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This study investigates the performance of pumping-mode ground-generation airborne wind energy systems by determining power-optimal flight trajectories based on realistic, k-means clustered, vertical wind velocity profiles. These profiles, derived from mesoscale weather simulations at an offshore and an onshore site in Europe, are incorporated into an optimal control model that maximizes average cycle power by optimizing the kite's trajectory.
Patrick Connolly and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 725–746, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-725-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-725-2023, 2023
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Mobile offshore wind energy systems are a potential way of producing green fuels from the untapped wind resource that lies far offshore. Herein, computational models of two such systems were developed and verified. The models are able to predict the power output of each system based on wind condition inputs. Results show that both systems have merits and that, contrary to existing results, unmoored floating wind turbines may produce as much power as fixed ones, given the right conditions.
Anna von Brandis, Gabriele Centurelli, Jonas Schmidt, Lukas Vollmer, Bughsin' Djath, and Martin Dörenkämper
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 589–606, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-589-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-589-2023, 2023
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We propose that considering large-scale wind direction changes in the computation of wind farm cluster wakes is of high relevance. Consequently, we present a new solution for engineering modeling tools that accounts for the effect of such changes in the propagation of wakes. The new model is evaluated with satellite data in the German Bight area. It has the potential to reduce uncertainty in applications such as site assessment and short-term power forecasting.
Rad Haghi and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1289–1304, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1289-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1289-2022, 2022
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Based on the IEC standards, a limited number of simulations is sufficient to calculate the extreme and fatigue loads on a wind turbine. However, this means inaccuracy in the output statistics. This paper aims to build a surrogate model on blade element momentum aerodynamic model simulation output employing non-intrusive polynomial chaos expansion. The surrogate model is then used in a large number of Monte Carlo simulations to provide an accurate statistical estimate of the loads.
Beatriz Cañadillas, Maximilian Beckenbauer, Juan J. Trujillo, Martin Dörenkämper, Richard Foreman, Thomas Neumann, and Astrid Lampert
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1241–1262, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1241-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1241-2022, 2022
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Scanning lidar measurements combined with meteorological sensors and mesoscale simulations reveal the strong directional and stability dependence of the wake strength in the direct vicinity of wind farm clusters.
Thomas Haas, Jochem De Schutter, Moritz Diehl, and Johan Meyers
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1093–1135, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1093-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1093-2022, 2022
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In this work, we study parks of large-scale airborne wind energy systems using a virtual flight simulator. The virtual flight simulator combines numerical techniques from flow simulation and kite control. Using advanced control algorithms, the systems can operate efficiently in the park despite turbulent flow conditions. For the three configurations considered in the study, we observe significant wake effects, reducing the power yield of the parks.
Jörge Schneemann, Frauke Theuer, Andreas Rott, Martin Dörenkämper, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 521–538, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-521-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-521-2021, 2021
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A wind farm can reduce the wind speed in front of it just by its presence and thus also slightly impact the available power. In our study we investigate this so-called global-blockage effect, measuring the inflow of a large offshore wind farm with a laser-based remote sensing method up to several kilometres in front of the farm. Our results show global blockage under a certain atmospheric condition and operational state of the wind farm; during other conditions it is not visible in our data.
Julia Gottschall and Martin Dörenkämper
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 505–520, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-505-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-505-2021, 2021
Kamran Shirzadeh, Horia Hangan, Curran Crawford, and Pooyan Hashemi Tari
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 477–489, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-477-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-477-2021, 2021
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Wind energy systems work coherently in atmospheric flows which are gusty. This causes highly variable power productions and high fatigue loads on the system, which together hold back further growth of the wind energy market. This study demonstrates an alternative experimental procedure to investigate some extreme wind condition effects on wind turbines based on the IEC standard. This experiment can be improved upon and used to develop new control concepts, mitigating the effect of gusts.
Kamran Shirzadeh, Horia Hangan, and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1755–1770, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1755-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1755-2020, 2020
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The main goal of this study is to develop a physical simulation of some extreme wind conditions that are defined by the IEC standard. This has been performed by a hybrid numerical–experimental approach with a relevant scaling. Being able to simulate these dynamic flow fields can generate decisive results for future scholars working in the wind energy sector to make these wind energy systems more reliable and finally helps to accelerate the reduction of the cost of electricity.
Andrea N. Hahmann, Tija Sīle, Björn Witha, Neil N. Davis, Martin Dörenkämper, Yasemin Ezber, Elena García-Bustamante, J. Fidel González-Rouco, Jorge Navarro, Bjarke T. Olsen, and Stefan Söderberg
Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 5053–5078, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-5053-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-5053-2020, 2020
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Wind energy resource assessment routinely uses numerical weather prediction model output. We describe the evaluation procedures used for picking the suitable blend of model setup and parameterizations for simulating European wind climatology with the WRF model. We assess the simulated winds against tall mast measurements using a suite of metrics, including the Earth Mover's Distance, which diagnoses the performance of each ensemble member using the full wind speed and direction distribution.
Martin Dörenkämper, Bjarke T. Olsen, Björn Witha, Andrea N. Hahmann, Neil N. Davis, Jordi Barcons, Yasemin Ezber, Elena García-Bustamante, J. Fidel González-Rouco, Jorge Navarro, Mariano Sastre-Marugán, Tija Sīle, Wilke Trei, Mark Žagar, Jake Badger, Julia Gottschall, Javier Sanz Rodrigo, and Jakob Mann
Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 5079–5102, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-5079-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-5079-2020, 2020
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This is the second of two papers that document the creation of the New European Wind Atlas (NEWA). The paper includes a detailed description of the technical and practical aspects that went into running the mesoscale simulations and the microscale downscaling for generating the climatology. A comprehensive evaluation of each component of the NEWA model chain is presented using observations from a large set of tall masts located all over Europe.
Rad Haghi and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2020-24, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2020-24, 2020
Revised manuscript not accepted
Jörge Schneemann, Andreas Rott, Martin Dörenkämper, Gerald Steinfeld, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 29–49, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-29-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-29-2020, 2020
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Offshore wind farm clusters cause reduced wind speeds in downstream regions which can extend over more than 50 km.
We analysed the impact of these so-called cluster wakes on a distant wind farm using remote-sensing wind measurements and power production data.
Cluster wakes caused power losses up to 55 km downstream in certain atmospheric states.
A better understanding of cluster wake effects reduces uncertainties in offshore wind resource assessment and improves offshore areal planning.
Markus Sommerfeld, Martin Dörenkämper, Gerald Steinfeld, and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 563–580, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-563-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-563-2019, 2019
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Airborne wind energy systems aim to operate at altitudes above conventional wind turbines where reliable high-resolution wind data are scarce. Wind measurements and computational simulations both have advantages and disadvantages when assessing the wind resource at such heights. This article investigates whether assimilating measurements into the model generates a more accurate wind data set up to 1100 m. These wind data sets are used to estimate optimal AWES operating altitudes and power.
Manuel Fluck and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 2, 507–520, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2-507-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2-507-2017, 2017
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We present an engineering model of 3-D turbulent wind inflow which reduces the number of random variables required from tens of thousands to ~ 20. This new model is a vital step towards stochastic modelling of wind turbines. Such models can quickly assess turbine lifetime loads and fluctuating power output and thus can be used to design better turbines. However, stochastic models are only viable when the input is expressed with very few random variables, hence the new wind model presented here.
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Thematic area: Wind technologies | Topic: Airborne technology
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Francisco DeLosRíos-Navarrete, Jorge González-García, Iván Castro-Fernández, and Gonzalo Sánchez-Arriaga
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Rishikesh Joshi, Dominic von Terzi, and Roland Schmehl
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Dominik Felix Duda, Hendrik Fuest, Tobias Islam, and Dieter Moormann
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Oriol Cayon, Simon Watson, and Roland Schmehl
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Christoph Elfert, Dietmar Göhlich, and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 2261–2282, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2261-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2261-2024, 2024
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Rishikesh Joshi, Roland Schmehl, and Michiel Kruijff
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 2195–2215, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2195-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2195-2024, 2024
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This paper presents a fast cycle–power computation model for fixed-wing ground-generation airborne wind energy systems. It is suitable for sensitivity and scalability studies, which makes it a valuable tool for design and innovation trade-offs. It is also suitable for integration with cost models and systems engineering tools, enhancing its applicability in assessing the potential of airborne wind energy in the broader energy system.
Mark Schelbergen and Roland Schmehl
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1323–1344, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1323-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1323-2024, 2024
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We present a novel two-point model of a kite with a suspended control unit to describe the characteristic swinging motion of this assembly during turning manoeuvres. Quasi-steady and dynamic model variants are combined with a discretised tether model, and simulation results are compared with measurement data of an instrumented kite system. By resolving the pitch of the kite, the model allows for computing the angle of attack, which is essential for estimating the generated aerodynamic forces.
Gonzalo Sánchez-Arriaga, Álvaro Cerrillo-Vacas, Daniel Unterweger, and Christof Beaupoil
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1273–1287, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1273-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1273-2024, 2024
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Rotary airborne wind energy (RAWE) machines transform wind energy into electric energy by transmitting the mechanical torque produced on a rotor to a generator on the ground by using its own structure, which is a spinning helix. Having a good understanding of the behavior of the helix is crucial in the design of RAWE machines. This work presents a theoretical model to simulate the helix’s dynamics and experimental tests to characterize it.
Aref Ehteshami and Mostafa Varmazyar
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1771–1793, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1771-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1771-2023, 2023
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In this paper, we numerically studied the wake characteristics and aerodynamics of a balloon wind turbine, an airborne system operating at altitudes of about 400–1000 m. The system can benefit from a stronger and steady wind flow at these altitudes. Results contribute to the wake structure and the magnitude of aerodynamic loads on the balloon in varying wind conditions at high altitudes. Findings are valuable in designing future optimized wind farms and control systems for balloon wind turbines.
Filippo Trevisi, Carlo E. D. Riboldi, and Alessandro Croce
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The power equations of crosswind Ground-Gen and Fly-Gen airborne wind energy systems (AWESs) are refined to include the contribution from the aerodynamic wake. A novel power coefficient is defined by normalizing the aerodynamic power with the wind power passing through a disk with a radius equal to the AWES wingspan, allowing us to compare systems with different wingspans. Ground-Gen and Fly-Gen AWESs are compared in terms of their aerodynamic power potential.
Markus Sommerfeld, Martin Dörenkämper, Jochem De Schutter, and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1153–1178, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1153-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1153-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigates the performance of pumping-mode ground-generation airborne wind energy systems by determining power-optimal flight trajectories based on realistic, k-means clustered, vertical wind velocity profiles. These profiles, derived from mesoscale weather simulations at an offshore and an onshore site in Europe, are incorporated into an optimal control model that maximizes average cycle power by optimizing the kite's trajectory.
Filippo Trevisi, Iván Castro-Fernández, Gregorio Pasquinelli, Carlo Emanuele Dionigi Riboldi, and Alessandro Croce
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2039–2058, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2039-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2039-2022, 2022
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The optimal control problem for the flight trajectories of Fly-Gen AWESs is expressed with a novel methodology in the frequency domain through a harmonic balance formulation. The solution gives the optimal trajectory and the optimal control inputs. Optimal trajectories have a circular shape squashed along the vertical direction, and the optimal control inputs can be modeled with only one or two harmonics. Analytical approximations for optimal trajectory characteristics are also given.
Gianluca De Fezza and Sarah Barber
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1627–1640, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1627-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1627-2022, 2022
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As part of a master's thesis, this study analysed the aerodynamic performance of a multi-element airfoil using numerical flow simulations. The results show that these types of airfoil are very suitable for an upcoming wind energy generation concept. The parametric study of the wing led to a significant improvement of up to 46.6 % compared to the baseline design. The increased power output of the energy generation concept contributes substantially to today's energy transition.
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Short summary
This research explores the ground-generation airborne wind energy system (AWES) design space and investigates scaling effects by varying design parameters such as aircraft wing size, aerodynamic efficiency and mass. Therefore, representative simulated onshore and offshore wind data are implemented into an AWES trajectory optimization model. We estimate optimal annual energy production and capacity factors as well as a minimal operational lift-to-weight ratio.
This research explores the ground-generation airborne wind energy system (AWES) design space and...
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