Articles | Volume 9, issue 5
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1189-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1189-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Method to predict the minimum measurement and experiment durations needed to achieve converged and significant results in a wind energy field experiment
Daniel R. Houck
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Sandia National Laboratories, 1515 Eubank Blvd SE, Albuquerque, NM 87123, USA
Nathaniel B. de Velder
Sandia National Laboratories, 1515 Eubank Blvd SE, Albuquerque, NM 87123, USA
David C. Maniaci
Sandia National Laboratories, 1515 Eubank Blvd SE, Albuquerque, NM 87123, USA
Brent C. Houchens
Sandia National Laboratories, 1515 Eubank Blvd SE, Albuquerque, NM 87123, USA
Related authors
Kenneth Brown, Gopal Yalla, Lawrence Cheung, Joeri Frederik, Dan Houck, Nathaniel deVelder, Eric Simley, and Paul Fleming
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1737–1762, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1737-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1737-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents one half of a companion paper series that studies strategies to reduce negative aerodynamic interference (i.e., wake effects) between nearby wind turbines in a wind farm. The approach leverages high-fidelity flow simulations of an open-source design for a wind turbine. Complimenting the companion paper’s analysis of the power and loading effects of the wake-control strategies, this article uncovers the underlying fluid-dynamic causes for these effects.
Lawrence Cheung, Gopal Yalla, Prakash Mohan, Alan Hsieh, Kenneth Brown, Nathaniel deVelder, Daniel Houck, Marc T. Henry de Frahan, Marc Day, and Michael Sprague
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1403–1420, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1403-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1403-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Mitigating turbine wakes is an important aspect to maximizing wind farm energy production but is a challenge to model. We demonstrate a new approach to modeling active wake mixing, which re-energizes turbine wake through periodic blade pitching. The new model divides the wake into separate steady, unsteady, and turbulent components and solves for each in a computationally efficient manner. Our results show that the model can reasonably predict the faster wake recovery due to mixing.
Gopal R. Yalla, Kenneth Brown, Lawrence Cheung, Dan Houck, Nathaniel deVelder, and Nicholas Hamilton
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-14, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-14, 2025
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
Short summary
Short summary
When wind reaches the first set of turbines in a wind farm, energy is extracted, reducing the energy available for downstream turbines. This study examines emerging technologies aimed at re-energizing the wind between turbines in a wind farm to improve overall power production. Optimizing these technologies depends on understanding complex features of the atmosphere and the wakes behind turbines, which is accomplished using high fidelity computer simulations and data analysis techniques.
Kenneth Brown, Gopal Yalla, Lawrence Cheung, Joeri Frederik, Dan Houck, Nathaniel deVelder, Eric Simley, and Paul Fleming
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1737–1762, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1737-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1737-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents one half of a companion paper series that studies strategies to reduce negative aerodynamic interference (i.e., wake effects) between nearby wind turbines in a wind farm. The approach leverages high-fidelity flow simulations of an open-source design for a wind turbine. Complimenting the companion paper’s analysis of the power and loading effects of the wake-control strategies, this article uncovers the underlying fluid-dynamic causes for these effects.
Lawrence Cheung, Gopal Yalla, Prakash Mohan, Alan Hsieh, Kenneth Brown, Nathaniel deVelder, Daniel Houck, Marc T. Henry de Frahan, Marc Day, and Michael Sprague
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1403–1420, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1403-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1403-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Mitigating turbine wakes is an important aspect to maximizing wind farm energy production but is a challenge to model. We demonstrate a new approach to modeling active wake mixing, which re-energizes turbine wake through periodic blade pitching. The new model divides the wake into separate steady, unsteady, and turbulent components and solves for each in a computationally efficient manner. Our results show that the model can reasonably predict the faster wake recovery due to mixing.
Gopal R. Yalla, Kenneth Brown, Lawrence Cheung, Dan Houck, Nathaniel deVelder, and Nicholas Hamilton
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-14, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-14, 2025
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
Short summary
Short summary
When wind reaches the first set of turbines in a wind farm, energy is extracted, reducing the energy available for downstream turbines. This study examines emerging technologies aimed at re-energizing the wind between turbines in a wind farm to improve overall power production. Optimizing these technologies depends on understanding complex features of the atmosphere and the wakes behind turbines, which is accomplished using high fidelity computer simulations and data analysis techniques.
Kenneth Brown, Pietro Bortolotti, Emmanuel Branlard, Mayank Chetan, Scott Dana, Nathaniel deVelder, Paula Doubrawa, Nicholas Hamilton, Hristo Ivanov, Jason Jonkman, Christopher Kelley, and Daniel Zalkind
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1791–1810, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1791-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1791-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents a study of the popular wind turbine design tool OpenFAST. We compare simulation results to measurements obtained from a 2.8 MW land-based wind turbine. Measured wind conditions were used to generate turbulent flow fields through several techniques. We show that successful validation of the tool is not strongly dependent on the inflow generation technique used for mean quantities of interest. The type of inflow assimilation method has a larger effect on fatigue quantities.
Dan Houck, David Maniaci, and Chris L. Kelley
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2021-122, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2021-122, 2021
Preprint withdrawn
Short summary
Short summary
Like young children without help, wind turbines are bad at sharing. Those that are first in line (most upstream) take all the fresh air leaving little for those downstream. This research shows how turbines can operate to share the wind resource better and what parameters are most important for optimizing this technique. Results indicate that power gains of 10 % can be achieved if upstream turbines are operated differently, which may help operators produce more wind power.
Cited articles
Bak, C., Skrzypiński, W., Gaunaa, M., Villanueva, H., Brønnum, N. F., and Kruse, E. K.: Full scale wind turbine test of vortex generators mounted on the entire blade, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 753, 022001, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/753/2/022001, 2016. a
Belu, R.: Effects of Complex Wind Regimes and Meteorlogical Parameters on Wind Turbine Performances, IEEE Xplore, ISBN 9781467318358, 2012. a
Berg, J., Bryant, J., Leblanc, B., Maniaci, D., Naughton, B., Paquette, J., Resor, B., White, J., and Kroeker, D.: Scaled Wind Farm Technology Facility Overview, Tech. rep., SAND2013-10632C, 2013. a
Castaignet, D., Wedel-Heinen, J. J., Kim, T., Buhl, T., and Poulsen, N. K.: Results from the first full scale wind turbine equipped with trailing edge flaps, 28th AIAA Applied Aerodynamics Conference, Chicago, Illinois, 28 June–1 July 2010, 1, https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2010-4407, 2010. a
Couchman, I., Castaignet, D., Poulsen, N. K., Buhl, T., Wedel-Heinen, J. J., and Olesen, N. A.: Active load reduction by means of trailing edge flaps on a wind turbine blade, Proceedings of the American Control Conference, Portland, Oregon, USA, 4–6 June 2014, https://doi.org/10.1109/ACC.2014.6859046, 2014. a
Doekemeijer, B. M., Kern, S., Maturu, S., Kanev, S., Salbert, B., Schreiber, J., Campagnolo, F., Bottasso, C. L., Schuler, S., Wilts, F., Neumann, T., Potenza, G., Calabretta, F., Fioretti, F., and van Wingerden, J.-W.: Field experiment for open-loop yaw-based wake steering at a commercial onshore wind farm in Italy, Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 159–176, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-159-2021, 2021. a, b
Efron, B. and Tibshirani, R.: Bootstrap Methods for Standard Errors, Confidence Intervals, and Other Measures of Statistical Accuracy, Stat. Sci., 1, 54–75, https://doi.org/10.1214/ss/1177013817, 1986. a
Fleming, P., King, J., Dykes, K., Simley, E., Roadman, J., Scholbrock, A., Murphy, P., Lundquist, J. K., Moriarty, P., Fleming, K., van Dam, J., Bay, C., Mudafort, R., Lopez, H., Skopek, J., Scott, M., Ryan, B., Guernsey, C., and Brake, D.: Initial results from a field campaign of wake steering applied at a commercial wind farm – Part 1, Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 273–285, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-273-2019, 2019. a, b, c
Gomez Gonzalez, A., Enevoldsen, P. B., Barlas, A., and Madsen, H. A.: Field test of an active flap system on a full-scale wind turbine, Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 33–43, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-33-2021, 2021. a
Herges, T. G., Maniaci, D. C., Naughton, B. T., Mikkelsen, T., and Sjöholm, M.: High resolution wind turbine wake measurements with a scanning lidar, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 854, 012021, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/854/1/012021, 2017. a
Hesterberg, T. C.: What Teachers Should Know About the Bootstrap: Resampling in the Undergraduate Statistics Curriculum, The American Statistician, 69, 371–386, https://doi.org/10.1080/00031305.2015.1089789, 2015. a, b
Howland, M. F., Quesada, J. B., Martínez, J. J. P., Larrañaga, F. P., Yadav, N., Chawla, J. S., Sivaram, V., and Dabiri, J. O.: Collective wind farm operation based on a predictive model increases utility-scale energy production, Nat. Energ., 7, 818–827, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-022-01085-8, 2022. a
JCGM100:2008: Evaluation of measurement data – Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement, International Organization for Standardization Geneva, 50, 134, https://doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2003.030528, 2008. a
Jenkins, D. G. and Quintana-Ascencio, P. F.: A solution to minimum sample size for regressions, PLoS ONE, 15, e0229345, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229345, 2020. a, b, c
Kelley, C. L. and Ennis, B. L.: SWiFT site atmospheric characterization, Tech. rep., Sandia National Laboratories, Report SAND2016-0216, https://doi.org/10.2172/1237403, 2016. a
Kelley, C. L., Doubrawa, P., and Naughton, J. W.: Rotor, Aeroelastics, Aerodynamics, and Wake (RAAW) Project, Department of Energy Wind Energy Technologies Office, https://doi.org/10.21947/RAAW/1984650, 2023. a
Lange, M., Waldl, H.-P., and Oldenburg, D.: Assessing the Uncertainty of Wind Power Predictions, Proceedings of the European Wind Energy Conference, https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ASSESSING-THE-UNCERTAINTY-OF-WIND-POWER-PREDICTIONS-Lange-Waldl/2db66eba0381e1bd4aa1c6fe20931c4fcf13e2d2 (last access: 8 May 2024) 2001. a
Letizia, S., Bodini, N., Brugger, P., Scholbrock, A., Hamilton, N., Porte-Agel, F., Doubrawa, P., and Moriarty, P.: Holistic scan optimization of nacelle-mounted lidars for inflow and wake characterization at the RAAW and AWAKEN field campaigns, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 2505, 012048, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2505/1/012048, 2023. a
Liew, J. and Larsen, G. C.: How does the quantity, resolution, and scaling of turbulence boxes affect aeroelastic simulation convergence?, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 2265, 032049, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2265/3/032049, 2022. a
Maniaci, D. C., Westergaard, C., Hsieh, A., and Paquette, J. A.: Uncertainty Quantification of Leading Edge Erosion Impacts on Wind Turbine Performance, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 1618, 052082, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1618/5/052082, 2020. a
Maniaci, D. C., Houck, D. R., Cutler, J., and Houchens, B. C.: Winglet Design for a Wind Turbine with an Additively Manufactured Blade Tip, AIAA SciTech Forum, 23–27 January 2023, National Harbor, MD & Online AIAA SCITECH 2023 Forum, https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2023-0969, 2023. a
NREL: FLORIS, GitHub [code], https://github.com/NREL/floris (last access: 8 May 2024), 2020. a
NREL: ROSCO, Zenodo [code], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10699366, 2021. a
NREL: OpenFAST, GitHub [code], https://github.com/OpenFAST/openfast (last access: 8 May 2024), 2023. a
Nuzzo, R.: Statistical errors, Nature, 506, 150–152, https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012267351-1/50023-7, 2014. a
Petrone, G., de Nicola, C., Quagliarella, D., Witteveen, J., and Iaccarino, G.: Wind Turbine Performance Analysis Under Uncertainty, in: 49th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting Including the New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition, January, Orlando, Florida, 4–7 January 2011, https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2011-544, 2011. a
Rybchuk, A., Martinez-Tossas, L. A., Hamilton, N., Doubrawa, P., Vijayakumar, G., Hassanaly, M., Kuh, M. B., and Zalkind, D. S.: A baseline for ensemble-based, time-resolved inflow reconstruction for a single turbine using large-eddy simulations and latent diffusion models, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 2505, 012018, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2505/1/012018, 2023. a
Scholbrock, A., Flemingy, P., Wright, A., Slinger, C., Medley, J., and Harris, M.: Field test results from lidar measured yaw control for improved yaw alignment with the NREL controls advanced research turbine, in: AIAA SciTech 2015, ISBN 9781624103445, https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2015-1209, 2015. a
Simley, E., Debnath, M., and Fleming, P.: Investigating the impact of atmospheric conditions on wake-steering performance at a commercial wind plant, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 2265, 032097, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2265/3/032097, 2022. a, b, c
Toft, H. S., Svenningsen, L., Sørensen, J. D., Moser, W., and Thøgersen, M. L.: Uncertainty in wind climate parameters and their influence on wind turbine fatigue loads, Renew. Energ., 90, 352–361, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.01.010, 2016. a
Wasserstein, R. L. and Lazar, N. A.: The ASA's Statement on p-Values: Context, Process, and Purpose, Am. Stat., 70, 129–133, https://doi.org/10.1080/00031305.2016.1154108, 2016. a
Short summary
Experiments offer incredible value to science, but results must come with an uncertainty quantification to be meaningful. We present a method to simulate a proposed experiment, calculate uncertainties, and determine the measurement duration (total time of measurements) and the experiment duration (total time to collect the required measurement data when including condition variability and time when measurement is not occurring) required to produce statistically significant and converged results.
Experiments offer incredible value to science, but results must come with an uncertainty...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint