Articles | Volume 9, issue 8
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1791-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1791-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
23 Aug 2024
Research article |
| 23 Aug 2024
| 23 Aug 2024
One-to-one aeroservoelastic validation of operational loads and performance of a 2.8 MW wind turbine model in OpenFAST
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA
Pietro Bortolotti
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
Emmanuel Branlard
Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
Mayank Chetan
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
Scott Dana
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
Nathaniel deVelder
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA
Paula Doubrawa
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
Nicholas Hamilton
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
Hristo Ivanov
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
Jason Jonkman
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
Christopher Kelley
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA
Daniel Zalkind
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
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Stefano Cioni, Francesco Papi, Leonardo Pagamonci, Alessandro Bianchini, Néstor Ramos-García, Georg Pirrung, Rémi Corniglion, Anaïs Lovera, Josean Galván, Ronan Boisard, Alessandro Fontanella, Paolo Schito, Alberto Zasso, Marco Belloli, Andrea Sanvito, Giacomo Persico, Lijun Zhang, Ye Li, Yarong Zhou, Simone Mancini, Koen Boorsma, Ricardo Amaral, Axelle Viré, Christian W. Schulz, Stefan Netzband, Rodrigo Soto-Valle, David Marten, Raquel Martín-San-Román, Pau Trubat, Climent Molins, Roger Bergua, Emmanuel Branlard, Jason Jonkman, and Amy Robertson
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Will Wiley, Jason Jonkman, Amy Robertson, and Kelsey Shaler
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1575–1595, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1575-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1575-2023, 2023
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Paula Doubrawa, Kelsey Shaler, and Jason Jonkman
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Paul Hulsman, Luis A. Martínez-Tossas, Nicholas Hamilton, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-112, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-112, 2023
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Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 465–485, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-465-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-465-2023, 2023
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Ryan Scott, Luis Martínez-Tossas, Juliaan Bossuyt, Nicholas Hamilton, and Raúl B. Cal
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 449–463, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-449-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-449-2023, 2023
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Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 383–399, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-383-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-383-2023, 2023
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Koen Boorsma, Gerard Schepers, Helge Aagard Madsen, Georg Pirrung, Niels Sørensen, Galih Bangga, Manfred Imiela, Christian Grinderslev, Alexander Meyer Forsting, Wen Zhong Shen, Alessandro Croce, Stefano Cacciola, Alois Peter Schaffarczyk, Brandon Lobo, Frederic Blondel, Philippe Gilbert, Ronan Boisard, Leo Höning, Luca Greco, Claudio Testa, Emmanuel Branlard, Jason Jonkman, and Ganesh Vijayakumar
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 211–230, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-211-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-211-2023, 2023
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Kelsey Shaler, Amy N. Robertson, and Jason Jonkman
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 25–40, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-25-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-25-2023, 2023
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This work evaluates which wind-inflow- and wake-related parameters have the greatest influence on fatigue and ultimate loads for turbines in a small wind farm. Twenty-eight parameters were screened using an elementary effects approach to identify the parameters that lead to the largest variation in these loads of each turbine. The findings show the increased importance of non-streamwise wind components and wake parameters in fatigue and ultimate load sensitivity of downstream turbines.
Kenneth A. Brown and Thomas G. Herges
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 7211–7234, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-7211-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-7211-2022, 2022
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Emmanuel Branlard and Jens Geisler
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2351–2371, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2351-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2351-2022, 2022
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Mayank Chetan, Shulong Yao, and D. Todd Griffith
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1731–1751, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1731-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1731-2022, 2022
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John Jasa, Pietro Bortolotti, Daniel Zalkind, and Garrett Barter
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Jason M. Jonkman, Emmanuel S. P. Branlard, and John P. Jasa
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This paper summarizes efforts done to understand the impact of design parameter variations in the physical system (e.g., mass, stiffness, geometry, aerodynamic, and hydrodynamic coefficients) on the linearized system using OpenFAST in support of the development of the WEIS toolset to enable controls co-design of floating offshore wind turbines.
Emmanuel Branlard, Ian Brownstein, Benjamin Strom, Jason Jonkman, Scott Dana, and Edward Ian Baring-Gould
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 455–467, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-455-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-455-2022, 2022
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In this work, we present an aerodynamic tool that can model an arbitrary collections of wings, blades, rotors, and towers. With these functionalities, the tool can be used to study and design advanced wind energy concepts, such as horizontal-axis wind turbines, vertical-axis wind turbines, kites, or multi-rotors. This article describes the key features of the tool and presents multiple applications. Field measurements of horizontal- and vertical-axis wind turbines are used for comparison.
Nikhar J. Abbas, Daniel S. Zalkind, Lucy Pao, and Alan Wright
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 53–73, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-53-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-53-2022, 2022
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The publication of the Reference Open-Source Controller (ROSCO) provides a controller and generic controller tuning process to the wind energy research community that can perform comparably or better than existing reference wind turbine controllers and includes features that are consistent with industry standards. Notably, ROSCO provides the first known open-source controller with features that specifically address floating offshore wind turbine control.
Ernesto Camarena, Evan Anderson, Josh Paquette, Pietro Bortolotti, Roland Feil, and Nick Johnson
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 19–35, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-19-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-19-2022, 2022
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The length of rotor blades of land-based wind turbines is currently constrained by logistics. Turbine manufacturers currently propose segmented solutions to overcome these limits, but blade joints come with extra masses and costs. This work investigates an alternative solution, namely the design of ultra-flexible blades that can be transported on rail via controlled bending. The results show that this is a promising pathway to further increasing the size of land-based wind turbines.
Dan Houck, David Maniaci, and Chris L. Kelley
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2021-122, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2021-122, 2021
Preprint withdrawn
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Like young children without help, wind turbines are bad at sharing. Those that are first in line (most upstream) take all the fresh air leaving little for those downstream. This research shows how turbines can operate to share the wind resource better and what parameters are most important for optimizing this technique. Results indicate that power gains of 10 % can be achieved if upstream turbines are operated differently, which may help operators produce more wind power.
Pietro Bortolotti, Nick Johnson, Nikhar J. Abbas, Evan Anderson, Ernesto Camarena, and Joshua Paquette
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 1277–1290, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1277-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1277-2021, 2021
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The length of rotor blades of land-based wind turbines is currently constrained by logistics. Turbine manufacturers currently propose segmented solutions to overcome these limits, but blade joints come with extra masses and costs. This work investigates an alternative solution, namely the design of ultra-flexible blades that can be transported on rail via controlled bending. The results show that this is a promising pathway for further increasing the size of land-based wind turbines.
Matthias Kretschmer, Jason Jonkman, Vasilis Pettas, and Po Wen Cheng
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 1247–1262, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1247-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1247-2021, 2021
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We perform a validation of the new simulation tool FAST.Farm for the prediction of power output and structural loads in single wake conditions with respect to measurement data from the offshore wind farm alpha ventus. With a new wake-added turbulence functionality added to FAST.Farm, good agreement between simulations and measurements is achieved for the considered quantities. We hereby give insights into load characteristics of an offshore wind turbine subjected to single wake conditions.
Mithu Debnath, Paula Doubrawa, Mike Optis, Patrick Hawbecker, and Nicola Bodini
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 1043–1059, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1043-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1043-2021, 2021
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As the offshore wind industry emerges on the US East Coast, a comprehensive understanding of the wind resource – particularly extreme events – is vital to the industry's success. We leverage a year of data of two floating lidars to quantify and characterize the frequent occurrence of high-wind-shear and low-level-jet events, both of which will have a considerable impact on turbine operation. We find that almost 100 independent long events occur throughout the year.
Mike Optis, Nicola Bodini, Mithu Debnath, and Paula Doubrawa
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 935–948, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-935-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-935-2021, 2021
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Offshore wind turbines are huge, with rotor blades soon to extend up to nearly 300 m. Accurate modeling of winds across these heights is crucial for accurate estimates of energy production. However, we lack sufficient observations at these heights but have plenty of near-surface observations. Here we show that a basic machine-learning model can provide very accurate estimates of winds in this area, and much better than conventional techniques.
Alayna Farrell, Jennifer King, Caroline Draxl, Rafael Mudafort, Nicholas Hamilton, Christopher J. Bay, Paul Fleming, and Eric Simley
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 737–758, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-737-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-737-2021, 2021
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Most current wind turbine wake models struggle to accurately simulate spatially variant wind conditions at a low computational cost. In this paper, we present an adaptation of NREL's FLOw Redirection and Induction in Steady State (FLORIS) wake model, which calculates wake losses in a heterogeneous flow field using local weather measurement inputs. Two validation studies are presented where the adapted model consistently outperforms previous versions of FLORIS that simulated uniform flow only.
Helena Canet, Pietro Bortolotti, and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 601–626, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-601-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-601-2021, 2021
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The paper analyzes in detail the problem of scaling, considering both the steady-state and transient response cases, including the effects of aerodynamics, elasticity, inertia, gravity, and actuation. After a general theoretical analysis of the problem, the article considers two alternative ways of designing a scaled rotor. The two methods are then applied to the scaling of a 10 MW turbine of 180 m in diameter down to three different sizes (54, 27, and 2.8 m).
Luis A. Martínez-Tossas, Jennifer King, Eliot Quon, Christopher J. Bay, Rafael Mudafort, Nicholas Hamilton, Michael F. Howland, and Paul A. Fleming
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 555–570, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-555-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-555-2021, 2021
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In this paper a three-dimensional steady-state solver for flow through a wind farm is developed and validated. The computational cost of the solver is on the order of seconds for large wind farms. The model is validated using high-fidelity simulations and SCADA.
Emmanuel Branlard, Dylan Giardina, and Cameron S. D. Brown
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1155–1167, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1155-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1155-2020, 2020
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The paper presents an application of the Kalman filtering technique to estimate loads on a wind turbine. The approach combines a mechanical model and a set of measurements to estimate signals that are not available in the measurements, such as wind speed, thrust, tower position, and tower loads. The model is severalfold faster than real time and is intended to be run online, for instance, to evaluate real-time fatigue life consumption of a field turbine using a digital twin.
Nicholas Hamilton
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 13, 1019–1032, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-1019-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-1019-2020, 2020
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The identification of atmospheric conditions within a multivariable atmospheric data set is an important step in validating emerging and existing models used to simulate wind plant flows and operational strategies. The total variation approach developed here offers a method founded in tested mathematical metrics and can be used to identify and characterize periods corresponding to quiescent conditions or specific events of interest for study or wind energy development.
Daniel S. Zalkind, Gavin K. Ananda, Mayank Chetan, Dana P. Martin, Christopher J. Bay, Kathryn E. Johnson, Eric Loth, D. Todd Griffith, Michael S. Selig, and Lucy Y. Pao
Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 595–618, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-595-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-595-2019, 2019
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We present a model that both (1) reduces the computational effort involved in analyzing design trade-offs and (2) provides a qualitative understanding of the root cause of fatigue and extreme structural loads for wind turbine components from the blades to the tower base. We use this model in conjunction with design loads from high-fidelity simulations to analyze and compare the trade-offs between power capture and structural loading for large rotor concepts.
Amy N. Robertson, Kelsey Shaler, Latha Sethuraman, and Jason Jonkman
Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 479–513, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-479-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-479-2019, 2019
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This paper identifies the most sensitive parameters for the load response of a 5 MW wind turbine. Two sets of parameters are examined: one set relating to the wind excitation characteristics and a second related to the physical properties of the wind turbine. The two sensitivity analyses are done separately, and the top most-sensitive parameters are identified for different load outputs throughout the structure. The findings will guide future validation campaigns and measurement needs.
Pietro Bortolotti, Helena Canet, Carlo L. Bottasso, and Jaikumar Loganathan
Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 397–406, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-397-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-397-2019, 2019
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The paper studies the effects of uncertainties in aeroservoelastic
wind turbine models. Uncertainties are associated with the wind
inflow characteristics and the blade surface state, and they are propagated
by means of two non-intrusive methods throughout the
aeroservoelastic model of a large conceptual offshore wind
turbine. Results are compared with a brute-force extensive Monte
Carlo sampling to assess the convergence characteristics of the
non-intrusive approaches.
Pietro Bortolotti, Abhinav Kapila, and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 115–125, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-115-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-115-2019, 2019
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The paper compares upwind and downwind three-bladed configurations
for a 10 MW wind turbine in terms of power and loads. For the
downwind case, the study also considers a load-aligned solution
with active coning. Results indicate that downwind solutions are
slightly more advantageous than upwind ones, although improvements
are small. Additionally, pre-alignment is difficult to achieve in
practice, and the active coning solution is associated with very
significant engineering challenges.
Jennifer Annoni, Paul Fleming, Andrew Scholbrock, Jason Roadman, Scott Dana, Christiane Adcock, Fernando Porte-Agel, Steffen Raach, Florian Haizmann, and David Schlipf
Wind Energ. Sci., 3, 819–831, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-819-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-819-2018, 2018
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This paper addresses the modeling aspect of wind farm control. To implement successful wind farm controls, a suitable model has to be used that captures the relevant physics. This paper addresses three different wake models that can be used for controls and compares these models with lidar field data from a utility-scale turbine.
Peter Graf, Katherine Dykes, Rick Damiani, Jason Jonkman, and Paul Veers
Wind Energ. Sci., 3, 475–487, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-475-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-475-2018, 2018
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Current approaches to wind turbine extreme load estimation are insufficient to routinely and reliably make required estimates over 50-year return periods. Our work hybridizes the two main approaches and casts the problem as stochastic optimization. However, the extreme variability in turbine response implies even an optimal sampling strategy needs unrealistic computing resources. We therefore conclude that further improvement requires better understanding of the underlying causes of loads.
Rick Damiani, Scott Dana, Jennifer Annoni, Paul Fleming, Jason Roadman, Jeroen van Dam, and Katherine Dykes
Wind Energ. Sci., 3, 173–189, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-173-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-173-2018, 2018
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The paper discusses load effects on wind turbines operating under misaligned-flow operations, which is part of a strategy to optimize wind-power-plant power production, where upwind turbines can be rotated off the wind axis to redirect their wakes. Analytical simplification, aeroelastic simulations, and field data from an instrumented turbine are compared and interpreted to provide an informed picture on the loads for various components.
Naseem Ali, Nicholas Hamilton, Dominic DeLucia, and Raúl Bayoán Cal
Wind Energ. Sci., 3, 43–56, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-43-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-43-2018, 2018
Paula Doubrawa, Alex Montornès, Rebecca J. Barthelmie, Sara C. Pryor, and Pau Casso
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2017-61, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2017-61, 2018
Preprint withdrawn
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We perform time-resolved, high-resolution simulations of the atmospheric boundary layer with a numerical weather prediction model. The downscaling is done within the model by defining nested domains, and we investigate different ways of treating turbulence modeling at intermediate spatial scales in which traditional turbulence parameterizations are inadequate. We focus on quantities of interest to wind energy and compare the simulations with measurements collected at a complex-terrain site.
Srinivas Guntur, Jason Jonkman, Ryan Sievers, Michael A. Sprague, Scott Schreck, and Qi Wang
Wind Energ. Sci., 2, 443–468, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2-443-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2-443-2017, 2017
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This paper presents a validation and code-to-code verification of the U.S. Dept of Energy/NREL wind turbine aeroelastic code, FAST v8, on a 2.3 MW wind turbine. Model validation is critical to any model-based research and development activity, and validation efforts on large turbines, as the current one, are extremely rare, mainly due to the scale. This paper, which was a collaboration between NREL and Siemens Wind Power, successfully demonstrates and validates the capabilities of FAST.
H. Wang, R. J. Barthelmie, P. Doubrawa, and S. C. Pryor
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 9, 4123–4139, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-9-4123-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-9-4123-2016, 2016
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This paper investigates how long a sampling duration of lidar measurements should be in order to accurately estimate radial velocity variance to obtain turbulence statistics. Using observations and statistical simulations, it is demonstrated that large probe volumes in lidar measurements increase the autocorrelation values, and consequently the uncertainty in radial velocity variance estimates. It is further shown that the random error can exceed 10 % for 30–60 min sampling duration.
Naseem Ali, Nicholas Hamilton, and Raúl Bayáon Cal
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2016-23, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2016-23, 2016
Revised manuscript not accepted
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The effect of the density of turbines on the wake recovery is important. However, the impact of the tight spacing is still not fully understood. Here, we used proper orthogonal decomposition tool to analyze this impact. Different streamwise and spanwise spacings are chosen to make this work robust. Thus, the power measurements are also applied to investigate the spacing impact.
Pietro Bortolotti, Carlo L. Bottasso, and Alessandro Croce
Wind Energ. Sci., 1, 71–88, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-1-71-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-1-71-2016, 2016
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The paper presents a new method to conduct the holistic optimization of a wind turbine. The proposed approach allows one to define the rotor radius and tower height, while simultaneously performing the detailed sizing of rotor and tower. For the rotor, the procedures perform simultaneously the design both from the aerodynamic and structural points of view. The overall optimization seeks a minimum for the cost of energy, while accounting for a wide range of user-defined design constraints.
Related subject area
Thematic area: Wind technologies | Topic: Design concepts and methods for plants, turbines, and components
Semi-analytical methodology for fretting wear evaluation of unlubricated pitch bearing raceways under operative and non-operative periods
Effect of blade inclination angle for straight-bladed vertical-axis wind turbines
Full-scale wind turbine performance assessment: a customised, sensor-augmented aeroelastic modelling approach
Challenges in detecting wind turbine power loss: the effects of blade erosion, turbulence, and time averaging
Identification of operational deflection shapes of a wind turbine gearbox using fiber-optic strain sensors on a serial production end-of-line test bench
Identification of electro-mechanical interactions in wind turbines
A sensitivity-based estimation method for investigating control co-design relevance
Validation of aeroelastic dynamic model of active trailing edge flap system tested on a 4.3 MW wind turbine
Probabilistic cost modeling as a basis for optimizing the inspection and maintenance of support structures in offshore wind farms
Mesoscale modelling of North Sea wind resources with COSMO-CLM: model evaluation and impact assessment of future wind farm characteristics on cluster-scale wake losses
Gradient-based wind farm layout optimization with inclusion and exclusion zones
A novel techno-economical layout optimization tool for floating wind farm design
Hybrid-Lambda: a low-specific-rating rotor concept for offshore wind turbines
Speeding up large-wind-farm layout optimization using gradients, parallelization, and a heuristic algorithm for the initial layout
Nonlinear vibration characteristics of virtual mass systems for wind turbine blade fatigue testing
Extreme wind turbine response extrapolation with the Gaussian mixture model
The effect of site-specific wind conditions and individual pitch control on wear of blade bearings
A neighborhood search integer programming approach for wind farm layout optimization
Enabling control co-design of the next generation of wind power plants
Offshore wind farm optimisation: a comparison of performance between regular and irregular wind turbine layouts
A data-driven reduced-order model for rotor optimization
Grand challenges in the design, manufacture, and operation of future wind turbine systems
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling of actual eroded wind turbine blades
Grand Challenges: wind energy research needs for a global energy transition
Current status and grand challenges for small wind turbine technology
CFD-based curved tip shape design for wind turbine blades
Impacts of wind field characteristics and non-steady deterministic wind events on time-varying main-bearing loads
David Cubillas, Mireia Olave, Iñigo Llavori, Ibai Ulacia, Jon Larrañaga, Aitor Zurutuza, and Arkaitz Lopez
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 401–415, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-401-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-401-2025, 2025
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A methodology for evaluating fretting in wind turbine pitch bearing raceways is presented, and a case study is evaluated. The methodology considers the coupled effects of radial fretting and rotational fretting. As result, critical locations based on the dissipated energy are identified for the different wind speeds and the contributions of operational and non-operational times, as well as the prediction of damage shapes on the raceway for both cases, are evaluated independently and compared.
Laurence Morgan, Abbas Kazemi Amiri, William Leithead, and James Carroll
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 381–399, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-381-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-381-2025, 2025
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This paper presents a systematic study of the effect of blade inclination angle, chord distribution, and blade length on vertical-axis wind turbine performance. It shows that, for rotors of identical power production, both blade volume and rotor torque can be significantly reduced through the use of aerodynamically optimised inclined rotor blades. This demonstrates the potential of vertical rotors to reduce the cost of energy for offshore wind when compared to horizontal rotors.
Tahir H. Malik and Christian Bak
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 269–291, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-269-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-269-2025, 2025
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This research integrates custom sensors into wind turbine simulation models for improved performance monitoring utilising a turbine performance integral (TPI) method developed here. Real-world data validation demonstrates that appropriate sensor selection improves wind turbine performance monitoring. This approach addresses the need for precise performance assessments in the evolving wind energy sector, ultimately promoting sustainability and efficiency.
Tahir H. Malik and Christian Bak
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 227–243, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-227-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-227-2025, 2025
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This study investigates how wind turbine blades damaged by erosion, along with changing wind conditions, affect power output. Even minor blade damage can lead to significant energy losses, especially in turbulent winds. Using simulations, it was discovered that standard power data analysis methods, including time averaging, can hide these losses. This research highlights the need for better blade damage detection and careful wind data analysis to optimise wind farm performance.
Unai Gutierrez Santiago, Aemilius A. W. van Vondelen, Alfredo Fernández Sisón, Henk Polinder, and Jan-Willem van Wingerden
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 207–225, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-207-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-207-2025, 2025
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Knowing the loads applied to wind turbine gearboxes throughout their service life is becoming increasingly important as maintaining reliability with higher torque density demands is proving to be challenging. Operational deflection shapes identified from fiber-optic strain measurements have enabled the estimation of input torque, improving the assessment of the consumed life. Tracking operational deflection shapes recursively over time can potentially be used as an indicator of fault detection.
Fiona Dominique Lüdecke, Martin Schmid, and Po Wen Cheng
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1527–1545, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1527-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1527-2024, 2024
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Large direct-drive wind turbines, with a multi-megawatt power rating, face design challenges. Moving towards a more system-oriented design approach could potentially reduce mass and costs. Exploiting the full design space, though, may invoke interaction mechanisms, which have been neglected in the past. Based on coupled simulations, this work derives a better understanding of the electro-mechanical interaction mechanisms and identifies potential for design relevance.
Jenna Iori, Carlo Luigi Bottasso, and Michael Kenneth McWilliam
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1289–1304, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1289-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1289-2024, 2024
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The controller of a wind turbine has an important role in regulating power production and avoiding structural failure. However, it is often designed after the rest of the turbine, and thus its potential is not fully exploited. An alternative is to design the structure and the controller simultaneously. This work develops a method to identify if a given turbine design can benefit from this new simultaneous design process. For example, a higher and cheaper turbine tower can be built this way.
Andrea Gamberini, Thanasis Barlas, Alejandro Gomez Gonzalez, and Helge Aagaard Madsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1229–1249, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1229-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1229-2024, 2024
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Movable surfaces on wind turbine (WT) blades, called active flaps, can reduce the cost of wind energy. However, they still need extensive testing. This study shows that the computer model used to design a WT with flaps aligns well with measurements obtained from a 3month test on a commercial WT featuring a prototype flap. Particularly during flap actuation, there were minimal differences between simulated and measured data. These findings assure the reliability of WT designs incorporating flaps.
Muhammad Farhan, Ronald Schneider, Sebastian Thöns, and Max Gündel
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-176, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-176, 2024
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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This paper formulates and applies a probabilistic cost model to support the operational management of offshore wind farms. It provides the decision-theoretical basis for the optimization of I&M regimes with an emphasis on integrating the probabilistic cost model into the decision analysis. The proposed probabilistic cost model is then applied in a numerical example and a value of information analysis is performed to quantify the cost effectiveness of the identified optimal I&M strategy.
Ruben Borgers, Marieke Dirksen, Ine L. Wijnant, Andrew Stepek, Ad Stoffelen, Naveed Akhtar, Jérôme Neirynck, Jonas Van de Walle, Johan Meyers, and Nicole P. M. van Lipzig
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 697–719, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-697-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-697-2024, 2024
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Wind farms at sea are becoming more densely clustered, which means that next to individual wind turbines interfering with each other in a single wind farm also interference between wind farms becomes important. Using a climate model, this study shows that the efficiency of wind farm clusters and the interference between the wind farms in the cluster depend strongly on the properties of the individual wind farms and are also highly sensitive to the spacing between the wind farms.
Javier Criado Risco, Rafael Valotta Rodrigues, Mikkel Friis-Møller, Julian Quick, Mads Mølgaard Pedersen, and Pierre-Elouan Réthoré
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 585–600, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-585-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-585-2024, 2024
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Wind energy developers frequently have to face some spatial restrictions at the time of designing a new wind farm due to different reasons, such as the existence of protected natural areas around the wind farm location, fishing routes, and the presence of buildings. Wind farm design has to account for these restricted areas, but sometimes this is not straightforward to achieve. We have developed a methodology that allows for different inclusion and exclusion areas in the optimization framework.
Amalia Ida Hietanen, Thor Heine Snedker, Katherine Dykes, and Ilmas Bayati
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 417–438, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-417-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-417-2024, 2024
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The layout of a floating offshore wind farm was optimized to maximize the relative net present value (NPV). By modeling power generation, losses, inter-array cables, anchors and operational costs, an increase of EUR 34.5 million in relative NPV compared to grid-based layouts was achieved. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to examine the impact of economic factors, providing valuable insights. This study contributes to enhancing the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of floating wind farms.
Daniel Ribnitzky, Frederik Berger, Vlaho Petrović, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 359–383, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-359-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-359-2024, 2024
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This paper provides an innovative blade design methodology for offshore wind turbines with very large rotors compared to their rated power, which are tailored for an increased power feed-in at low wind speeds. Rather than designing the blade for a single optimized operational point, we include the application of peak shaving in the design process and introduce a design for two tip speed ratios. We describe how enlargement of the rotor diameter can be realized to improve the value of wind power.
Rafael Valotta Rodrigues, Mads Mølgaard Pedersen, Jens Peter Schøler, Julian Quick, and Pierre-Elouan Réthoré
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 321–341, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-321-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-321-2024, 2024
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The use of wind energy has been growing over the last few decades, and further increase is predicted. As the wind energy industry is starting to consider larger wind farms, the existing numerical methods for analysis of small and medium wind farms need to be improved. In this article, we have explored different strategies to tackle the problem in a feasible and timely way. The final product is a set of recommendations when carrying out trade-off analysis on large wind farms.
Aiguo Zhou, Jinlei Shi, Tao Dong, Yi Ma, and Zhenhui Weng
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 49–64, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-49-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-49-2024, 2024
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This paper explores the nonlinear influence of the virtual mass mechanism on the test system in blade biaxial tests. The blade theory and simulation model are established to reveal the nonlinear amplitude–frequency characteristics of the blade-virtual-mass system. Increasing the amplitude of the blade or decreasing the seesaw length will lower the resonance frequency and load of the system. The virtual mass also affects the blade biaxial trajectory.
Xiaodong Zhang and Nikolay Dimitrov
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1613–1623, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1613-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1613-2023, 2023
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Wind turbine extreme response estimation based on statistical extrapolation necessitates using a small number of simulations to calculate a low exceedance probability. This is a challenging task especially if we require small prediction error. We propose the use of a Gaussian mixture model as it is capable of estimating a low exceedance probability with minor bias error, even with limited simulation data, having flexibility in modeling the distributions of varying response variables.
Arne Bartschat, Karsten Behnke, and Matthias Stammler
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1495–1510, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1495-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1495-2023, 2023
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Blade bearings are among the most stressed and challenging components of a wind turbine. Experimental investigations using different test rigs and real-size blade bearings have been able to show that rather short time intervals of only several hours of turbine operation can cause wear damage on the raceways of blade bearings. The proposed methods can be used to assess wear-critical operation conditions and to validate control strategies as well as lubricants for the application.
Juan-Andrés Pérez-Rúa, Mathias Stolpe, and Nicolaos Antonio Cutululis
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1453–1473, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1453-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1453-2023, 2023
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With the challenges of ensuring secure energy supplies and meeting climate targets, wind energy is on course to become the cornerstone of decarbonized energy systems. This work proposes a new method to optimize wind farms by means of smartly placing wind turbines within a given project area, leading to more green-energy generation. This method performs satisfactorily compared to state-of-the-art approaches in terms of the resultant annual energy production and other high-level metrics.
Andrew P. J. Stanley, Christopher J. Bay, and Paul Fleming
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1341–1350, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1341-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1341-2023, 2023
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Better wind farms can be built by simultaneously optimizing turbine locations and control, which is currently impossible or extremely challenging because of the size of the problem. The authors present a method to determine optimal wind farm control as a function of the turbine locations, which enables turbine layout and control to be optimized together by drastically reducing the size of the problem. In an example, a wind farm's performance improves by 0.8 % when optimized with the new method.
Maaike Sickler, Bart Ummels, Michiel Zaaijer, Roland Schmehl, and Katherine Dykes
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1225–1233, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1225-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1225-2023, 2023
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This paper investigates the effect of wind farm layout on the performance of offshore wind farms. A regular farm layout is compared to optimised irregular layouts. The irregular layouts have higher annual energy production, and the power production is less sensitive to wind direction. However, turbine towers require thicker walls to counteract increased fatigue due to increased turbulence levels in the farm. The study shows that layout optimisation can be used to maintain high-yield performance.
Nicholas Peters, Christopher Silva, and John Ekaterinaris
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1201–1223, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1201-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1201-2023, 2023
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Wind turbines have increasingly been leveraged as a viable approach for obtaining renewable energy. As such, it is essential that engineers have a high-fidelity, low-cost approach to modeling rotor load distributions. In this study, such an approach is proposed. This modeling approach was shown to make high-fidelity predictions at a low computational cost for rotor distributed-pressure loads as rotor geometry varied, allowing for an optimization of the rotor to be completed.
Paul Veers, Carlo L. Bottasso, Lance Manuel, Jonathan Naughton, Lucy Pao, Joshua Paquette, Amy Robertson, Michael Robinson, Shreyas Ananthan, Thanasis Barlas, Alessandro Bianchini, Henrik Bredmose, Sergio González Horcas, Jonathan Keller, Helge Aagaard Madsen, James Manwell, Patrick Moriarty, Stephen Nolet, and Jennifer Rinker
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1071–1131, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1071-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1071-2023, 2023
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Critical unknowns in the design, manufacturing, and operation of future wind turbine and wind plant systems are articulated, and key research activities are recommended.
Kisorthman Vimalakanthan, Harald van der Mijle Meijer, Iana Bakhmet, and Gerard Schepers
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 41–69, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-41-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-41-2023, 2023
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Leading edge erosion (LEE) is one of the most critical degradation mechanisms that occur with wind turbine blades. A detailed understanding of the LEE process and the impact on aerodynamic performance due to the damaged leading edge is required to optimize blade maintenance. Providing accurate modeling tools is therefore essential. This novel study assesses CFD approaches for modeling high-resolution scanned LE surfaces from an actual blade with LEE damages.
Paul Veers, Katherine Dykes, Sukanta Basu, Alessandro Bianchini, Andrew Clifton, Peter Green, Hannele Holttinen, Lena Kitzing, Branko Kosovic, Julie K. Lundquist, Johan Meyers, Mark O'Malley, William J. Shaw, and Bethany Straw
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2491–2496, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2491-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2491-2022, 2022
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Wind energy will play a central role in the transition of our energy system to a carbon-free future. However, many underlying scientific issues remain to be resolved before wind can be deployed in the locations and applications needed for such large-scale ambitions. The Grand Challenges are the gaps in the science left behind during the rapid growth of wind energy. This article explains the breadth of the unfinished business and introduces 10 articles that detail the research needs.
Alessandro Bianchini, Galih Bangga, Ian Baring-Gould, Alessandro Croce, José Ignacio Cruz, Rick Damiani, Gareth Erfort, Carlos Simao Ferreira, David Infield, Christian Navid Nayeri, George Pechlivanoglou, Mark Runacres, Gerard Schepers, Brent Summerville, David Wood, and Alice Orrell
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2003–2037, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2003-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2003-2022, 2022
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The paper is part of the Grand Challenges Papers for Wind Energy. It provides a status of small wind turbine technology in terms of technical maturity, diffusion, and cost. Then, five grand challenges that are thought to be key to fostering the development of the technology are proposed. To tackle these challenges, a series of unknowns and gaps are first identified and discussed. Improvement areas are highlighted, within which 10 key enabling actions are finally proposed to the wind community.
Mads H. Aa. Madsen, Frederik Zahle, Sergio González Horcas, Thanasis K. Barlas, and Niels N. Sørensen
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1471–1501, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1471-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1471-2022, 2022
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This work presents a shape optimization framework based on computational fluid dynamics. The design framework is used to optimize wind turbine blade tips for maximum power increase while avoiding that extra loading is incurred. The final results are shown to align well with related literature. The resulting tip shape could be mounted on already installed wind turbines as a sleeve-like solution or be conceived as part of a modular blade with tips designed for site-specific conditions.
Edward Hart, Adam Stock, George Elderfield, Robin Elliott, James Brasseur, Jonathan Keller, Yi Guo, and Wooyong Song
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1209–1226, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1209-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1209-2022, 2022
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We consider characteristics and drivers of loads experienced by wind turbine main bearings using simplified models of hub and main-bearing configurations. Influences of deterministic wind characteristics are investigated for 5, 7.5, and 10 MW turbine models. Load response to gusts and wind direction changes are also considered. Cubic load scaling is observed, veer is identified as an important driver of load fluctuations, and strong links between control and main-bearing load response are shown.
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Short summary
This paper presents a study of the popular wind turbine design tool OpenFAST. We compare simulation results to measurements obtained from a 2.8 MW land-based wind turbine. Measured wind conditions were used to generate turbulent flow fields through several techniques. We show that successful validation of the tool is not strongly dependent on the inflow generation technique used for mean quantities of interest. The type of inflow assimilation method has a larger effect on fatigue quantities.
This paper presents a study of the popular wind turbine design tool OpenFAST. We compare...
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