Articles | Volume 8, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-589-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-589-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
26 Apr 2023
Research article |
| 26 Apr 2023
| 26 Apr 2023
An investigation of spatial wind direction variability and its consideration in engineering models
Anna von Brandis
Fraunhofer IWES, Küpkersweg 70, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
Gabriele Centurelli
ForWind – Center for Wind Energy Research, University of Oldenburg, Küpkersweg 70, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
Jonas Schmidt
Fraunhofer IWES, Küpkersweg 70, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
Lukas Vollmer
Fraunhofer IWES, Küpkersweg 70, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
Bughsin' Djath
Institute of Coastal Systems, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Max-Planck-Str. 1, 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
Martin Dörenkämper
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Fraunhofer IWES, Küpkersweg 70, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
Related authors
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Lukas Vollmer, Balthazar Arnoldus Maria Sengers, and Martin Dörenkämper
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-89, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-89, 2023
Revised manuscript under review for WES
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This study proposes a modification to a well-established wind farm parameterization used in mesoscale models. The wind speed at the location of the turbine, which is used to calculate power and thrust, is corrected to approximate the free wind speed. Results show that the modified parameterization produces more accurate estimates of the turbine’s power curve.
Markus Sommerfeld, Martin Dörenkämper, Jochem De Schutter, and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1153–1178, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1153-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1153-2023, 2023
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This study investigates the performance of pumping-mode ground-generation airborne wind energy systems by determining power-optimal flight trajectories based on realistic, k-means clustered, vertical wind velocity profiles. These profiles, derived from mesoscale weather simulations at an offshore and an onshore site in Europe, are incorporated into an optimal control model that maximizes average cycle power by optimizing the kite's trajectory.
Markus Sommerfeld, Martin Dörenkämper, Jochem De Schutter, and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1847–1868, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1847-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1847-2022, 2022
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This research explores the ground-generation airborne wind energy system (AWES) design space and investigates scaling effects by varying design parameters such as aircraft wing size, aerodynamic efficiency and mass. Therefore, representative simulated onshore and offshore wind data are implemented into an AWES trajectory optimization model. We estimate optimal annual energy production and capacity factors as well as a minimal operational lift-to-weight ratio.
Tuhfe Göçmen, Filippo Campagnolo, Thomas Duc, Irene Eguinoa, Søren Juhl Andersen, Vlaho Petrović, Lejla Imširović, Robert Braunbehrens, Jaime Liew, Mads Baungaard, Maarten Paul van der Laan, Guowei Qian, Maria Aparicio-Sanchez, Rubén González-Lope, Vinit V. Dighe, Marcus Becker, Maarten J. van den Broek, Jan-Willem van Wingerden, Adam Stock, Matthew Cole, Renzo Ruisi, Ervin Bossanyi, Niklas Requate, Simon Strnad, Jonas Schmidt, Lukas Vollmer, Ishaan Sood, and Johan Meyers
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1791–1825, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1791-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1791-2022, 2022
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The FarmConners benchmark is the first of its kind to bring a wide variety of data sets, control settings, and model complexities for the (initial) assessment of wind farm flow control benefits. Here we present the first part of the benchmark results for three blind tests with large-scale rotors and 11 participating models in total, via direct power comparisons at the turbines as well as the observed or estimated power gain at the wind farm level under wake steering control strategy.
Beatriz Cañadillas, Maximilian Beckenbauer, Juan J. Trujillo, Martin Dörenkämper, Richard Foreman, Thomas Neumann, and Astrid Lampert
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1241–1262, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1241-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1241-2022, 2022
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Scanning lidar measurements combined with meteorological sensors and mesoscale simulations reveal the strong directional and stability dependence of the wake strength in the direct vicinity of wind farm clusters.
Jörge Schneemann, Frauke Theuer, Andreas Rott, Martin Dörenkämper, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 521–538, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-521-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-521-2021, 2021
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A wind farm can reduce the wind speed in front of it just by its presence and thus also slightly impact the available power. In our study we investigate this so-called global-blockage effect, measuring the inflow of a large offshore wind farm with a laser-based remote sensing method up to several kilometres in front of the farm. Our results show global blockage under a certain atmospheric condition and operational state of the wind farm; during other conditions it is not visible in our data.
Julia Gottschall and Martin Dörenkämper
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 505–520, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-505-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-505-2021, 2021
Andrea N. Hahmann, Tija Sīle, Björn Witha, Neil N. Davis, Martin Dörenkämper, Yasemin Ezber, Elena García-Bustamante, J. Fidel González-Rouco, Jorge Navarro, Bjarke T. Olsen, and Stefan Söderberg
Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 5053–5078, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-5053-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-5053-2020, 2020
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Wind energy resource assessment routinely uses numerical weather prediction model output. We describe the evaluation procedures used for picking the suitable blend of model setup and parameterizations for simulating European wind climatology with the WRF model. We assess the simulated winds against tall mast measurements using a suite of metrics, including the Earth Mover's Distance, which diagnoses the performance of each ensemble member using the full wind speed and direction distribution.
Martin Dörenkämper, Bjarke T. Olsen, Björn Witha, Andrea N. Hahmann, Neil N. Davis, Jordi Barcons, Yasemin Ezber, Elena García-Bustamante, J. Fidel González-Rouco, Jorge Navarro, Mariano Sastre-Marugán, Tija Sīle, Wilke Trei, Mark Žagar, Jake Badger, Julia Gottschall, Javier Sanz Rodrigo, and Jakob Mann
Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 5079–5102, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-5079-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-5079-2020, 2020
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This is the second of two papers that document the creation of the New European Wind Atlas (NEWA). The paper includes a detailed description of the technical and practical aspects that went into running the mesoscale simulations and the microscale downscaling for generating the climatology. A comprehensive evaluation of each component of the NEWA model chain is presented using observations from a large set of tall masts located all over Europe.
Michel Tchilibou, Lionel Gourdeau, Florent Lyard, Rosemary Morrow, Ariane Koch Larrouy, Damien Allain, and Bughsin Djath
Ocean Sci., 16, 615–635, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-16-615-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-16-615-2020, 2020
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This paper focuses on internal tides in the marginal Solomon Sea where LLWBCs transit. The objective is to characterize such internal tides and to give some insights into their impacts on water mass transformation in this area of interest for the global circulation. Results are discussed for two contrasted ENSO conditions with different mesoscale activity and stratification. Such study is motivated by the next altimetric SWOT mission that will be able to observe such phenomena.
Astrid Lampert, Konrad Bärfuss, Andreas Platis, Simon Siedersleben, Bughsin Djath, Beatriz Cañadillas, Robert Hunger, Rudolf Hankers, Mark Bitter, Thomas Feuerle, Helmut Schulz, Thomas Rausch, Maik Angermann, Alexander Schwithal, Jens Bange, Johannes Schulz-Stellenfleth, Thomas Neumann, and Stefan Emeis
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 12, 935–946, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-935-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-935-2020, 2020
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With the research aircraft Do-128 of TU Braunschweig, meteorological measurements were performed in the wakes of offshore wind parks during the project WIPAFF. During stable atmospheric conditions, the areas of reduced wind speed and enhanced turbulence behind wind parks had an extension larger than 45 km downwind. The data set consisting of 41 measurement flights is presented. Parameters include wind vector, temperature, humidity and significant wave height.
Björn Maronga, Sabine Banzhaf, Cornelia Burmeister, Thomas Esch, Renate Forkel, Dominik Fröhlich, Vladimir Fuka, Katrin Frieda Gehrke, Jan Geletič, Sebastian Giersch, Tobias Gronemeier, Günter Groß, Wieke Heldens, Antti Hellsten, Fabian Hoffmann, Atsushi Inagaki, Eckhard Kadasch, Farah Kanani-Sühring, Klaus Ketelsen, Basit Ali Khan, Christoph Knigge, Helge Knoop, Pavel Krč, Mona Kurppa, Halim Maamari, Andreas Matzarakis, Matthias Mauder, Matthias Pallasch, Dirk Pavlik, Jens Pfafferott, Jaroslav Resler, Sascha Rissmann, Emmanuele Russo, Mohamed Salim, Michael Schrempf, Johannes Schwenkel, Gunther Seckmeyer, Sebastian Schubert, Matthias Sühring, Robert von Tils, Lukas Vollmer, Simon Ward, Björn Witha, Hauke Wurps, Julian Zeidler, and Siegfried Raasch
Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 1335–1372, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-1335-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-1335-2020, 2020
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In this paper, we describe the PALM model system 6.0. PALM is a Fortran-based turbulence-resolving code and has been applied for studying a variety of atmospheric and oceanic boundary layers for about 20 years. The model is optimized for use on massively parallel computer architectures. During the last years, PALM has been significantly improved and now offers a variety of new components that are especially designed to simulate the urban atmosphere at building-resolving resolution.
Simon K. Siedersleben, Andreas Platis, Julie K. Lundquist, Bughsin Djath, Astrid Lampert, Konrad Bärfuss, Beatriz Cañadillas, Johannes Schulz-Stellenfleth, Jens Bange, Tom Neumann, and Stefan Emeis
Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 249–268, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-249-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-249-2020, 2020
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Wind farms affect local weather and microclimates. These effects can be simulated in weather models, usually by removing momentum at the location of the wind farm. Some debate exists whether additional turbulence should be added to capture the enhanced mixing of wind farms. By comparing simulations to measurements from airborne campaigns near offshore wind farms, we show that additional turbulence is necessary. Without added turbulence, the mixing is underestimated during stable conditions.
Jörge Schneemann, Andreas Rott, Martin Dörenkämper, Gerald Steinfeld, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 29–49, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-29-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-29-2020, 2020
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Offshore wind farm clusters cause reduced wind speeds in downstream regions which can extend over more than 50 km.
We analysed the impact of these so-called cluster wakes on a distant wind farm using remote-sensing wind measurements and power production data.
Cluster wakes caused power losses up to 55 km downstream in certain atmospheric states.
A better understanding of cluster wake effects reduces uncertainties in offshore wind resource assessment and improves offshore areal planning.
Markus Sommerfeld, Martin Dörenkämper, Gerald Steinfeld, and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 563–580, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-563-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-563-2019, 2019
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Airborne wind energy systems aim to operate at altitudes above conventional wind turbines where reliable high-resolution wind data are scarce. Wind measurements and computational simulations both have advantages and disadvantages when assessing the wind resource at such heights. This article investigates whether assimilating measurements into the model generates a more accurate wind data set up to 1100 m. These wind data sets are used to estimate optimal AWES operating altitudes and power.
Michel Tchilibou, Lionel Gourdeau, Rosemary Morrow, Guillaume Serazin, Bughsin Djath, and Florent Lyard
Ocean Sci., 14, 1283–1301, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-14-1283-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-14-1283-2018, 2018
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This paper is motivated by the next SWOT altimetric mission dedicated to the observation of mesoscale and submesoscale oceanic features. It focuses on tropical areas with a strong discrepancy in the spectral signature between altimetry and models. The paper reviews the spectral signature of tropical turbulence which presents a rich variety of phenomena depending on the latitudinal dependence of the Coriolis force. Internal tides observed by altimetry explain the discrepancy with the model.
Lukas Vollmer, Gerald Steinfeld, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 2, 603–614, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2-603-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2-603-2017, 2017
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A model chain to simulate changing atmospheric conditions at the location of an offshore wind farm is introduced and validated. The methodology is used to simulate the wind flow upstream and downstream of an offshore wind turbine of the German wind farm Alpha ventus. The model results show a good agreement with wind measurements from the met mast that is located at the wind farm and with remote sensing measurements of the horizontal wind field.
David Bastine, Lukas Vollmer, Matthias Wächter, and Joachim Peinke
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2016-38, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2016-38, 2016
Revised manuscript not accepted
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Modeling of wind turbine wakes plays a key role in the maximization of the power output and lifetime of wind turbines in wind farms. In order to capture important dynamic and turbulent aspects of the wake, a new stochastic modeling approach is presented in this work. The resulting new kind of stochastic wake model captures important characteristics of loads which act on wind turbines in the wake. It might therefore be of great use for the planing and controlling of wind farms.
Lukas Vollmer, Gerald Steinfeld, Detlev Heinemann, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 1, 129–141, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-1-129-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-1-129-2016, 2016
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The wake flow downstream of yaw misaligned wind turbines is studied in numeric simulations of different atmospheric turbulence and shear conditions. We find that the average trajectory of the wake as well as the variation about this average is influenced by the thermal stability of the atmosphere. The results suggest that an intentional intervention in the yaw control of individual turbines to increase overall wind farm performance might be not successful during unstable thermal conditions.
Related subject area
Thematic area: Wind and the atmosphere | Topic: Wind and turbulence
TOSCA – an open-source, finite-volume, large-eddy simulation (LES) environment for wind farm flows
Quantitative comparison of power production and power quality onshore and offshore: a case study from the eastern United States
The wind farm pressure field
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Evaluation of wind farm parameterizations in the WRF model under different atmospheric stability conditions with high-resolution wake simulations
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Control-Oriented Modelling of Wind Direction Variability
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Measurement-Driven Large-Eddy Simulations of a Diurnal Cycle during a Wake Steering Field Campaign
Renewable Energy Complementarity (RECom) Maps – a comprehensive visualisation tool to support spatial diversification
Stochastic gradient descent for wind farm optimization
Modelling the impact of trapped lee waves on offshore wind farm power output
Applying a random time mapping to Mann-modeled turbulence for the generation of intermittent wind fields
From shear to veer: theory, statistics, and practical application
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Dependence of turbulence estimations on nacelle lidar scanning strategies
Vertical extrapolation of Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT) ocean surface winds using machine-learning techniques
From gigawatt to multi-gigawatt wind farms: wake effects, energy budgets and inertial gravity waves investigated by large-eddy simulations
Investigations of correlation and coherence in turbulence from a large-eddy simulation
Validation of turbulence intensity as simulated by the Weather Research and Forecasting model off the US northeast coast
On the laminar–turbulent transition mechanism on megawatt wind turbine blades operating in atmospheric flow
Brief communication: A momentum-conserving superposition method applied to the super-Gaussian wind turbine wake model
Turbulence structures and entrainment length scales in large offshore wind farms
Effect of different source terms and inflow direction in atmospheric boundary modeling over the complex terrain site of Perdigão
Comparison of large eddy simulations against measurements from the Lillgrund offshore wind farm
Adjusted spectral correction method for calculating extreme winds in tropical-cyclone-affected water areas
The Jensen wind farm parameterization
Current and future wind energy resources in the North Sea according to CMIP6
Optimization of wind farm portfolios for minimizing overall power fluctuations at selective frequencies – a case study of the Faroe Islands
Evaluating the mesoscale spatio-temporal variability in simulated wind speed time series over northern Europe
Gaussian mixture model for extreme wind turbulence estimation
The sensitivity of the Fitch wind farm parameterization to a three-dimensional planetary boundary layer scheme
Offshore reanalysis wind speed assessment across the wind turbine rotor layer off the United States Pacific coast
Statistical post-processing of reanalysis wind speeds at hub heights using a diagnostic wind model and neural networks
Turbulence in a coastal environment: the case of Vindeby
Computational-fluid-dynamics analysis of a Darrieus vertical-axis wind turbine installation on the rooftop of buildings under turbulent-inflow conditions
Spatiotemporal observations of nocturnal low-level jets and impacts on wind power production
Computational fluid dynamics studies on wind turbine interactions with the turbulent local flow field influenced by complex topography and thermal stratification
Brief communication: How does complex terrain change the power curve of a wind turbine?
The wide range of factors contributing to wind resource assessment accuracy in complex terrain
High-resolution offshore wind resource assessment at turbine hub height with Sentinel-1 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data and machine learning
Impact of the wind field at the complex-terrain site Perdigão on the surface pressure fluctuations of a wind turbine
Surrogate models for the blade element momentum aerodynamic model using non-intrusive polynomial chaos expansions
Offshore wind farm cluster wakes as observed by long-range-scanning wind lidar measurements and mesoscale modeling
Classification and properties of non-idealized coastal wind profiles – an observational study
Sebastiano Stipa, Arjun Ajay, Dries Allaerts, and Joshua Brinkerhoff
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 297–320, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-297-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-297-2024, 2024
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In the current study, we introduce TOSCA (Toolbox fOr Stratified Convective Atmospheres), an open-source computational fluid dynamics (CFD) tool, and demonstrate its capabilities by simulating the flow around a large wind farm, operating in realistic flow conditions. This is one of the grand challenges of the present decade and can yield better insight into physical phenomena that strongly affect wind farm operation but which are not yet fully understood.
Rebecca Foody, Jacob Coburn, Jeanie A. Aird, Rebecca J. Barthelmie, and Sara C. Pryor
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 263–280, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-263-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-263-2024, 2024
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Using lidar-derived wind speed measurements at approx. 150 m height at onshore and offshore locations, we quantify the advantages of deploying wind turbines offshore in terms of the amount of electrical power produced and the higher reliability and predictability of the electrical power.
Ronald B. Smith
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 253–261, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-253-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-253-2024, 2024
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Recent papers have investigated the impact of turbine drag on local wind patterns, but these studies have not given a full explanation of the induced pressure field. The pressure field blocks and deflects the wind and in other ways modifies farm efficiency. Current gravity wave models are complex and provide no estimation tools. We dig deeper into the cause of the pressure field and provide approximate closed-form expressions for pressure field effects.
Lindsay M. Sheridan, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, William I. Gustafson Jr., Ye Liu, Brian J. Gaudet, Nicola Bodini, Rob K. Newsom, and Mikhail Pekour
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-152, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-152, 2023
Revised manuscript under review for WES
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In 2020, lidar-mounted buoys owned by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) were deployed off the California coast in two wind energy lease areas and provided valuable year-long analyses of offshore low-level jet (LLJ) characteristics at heights relevant to wind turbines. In addition to the LLJ climatology, this work provides validation of LLJ representation in atmospheric models that are essential for assessing the potential energy yield of offshore wind farms.
Cédric Raibaudo, Jean-Christophe Gilloteaux, and Laurent Perret
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1711–1725, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1711-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1711-2023, 2023
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The work presented here proposes interfacing experimental measurements performed in a wind tunnel with simulations conducted with the aeroelastic code FAST and applied to a floating wind turbine model under wave-induced motion. FAST simulations using experiments match well with those obtained using the inflow generation method provided by TurbSim. The highest surge motion frequencies show a significant decrease in the mean power produced by the turbine and a mitigation of the flow dynamics.
Oscar García-Santiago, Andrea N. Hahmann, Jake Badger, and Alfredo Peña
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-124, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-124, 2023
Revised manuscript under review for WES
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We studied how good the representation of wind farms in weather models is by comparing two popular and simpler methods with a detailed simulation. Our results showed that while these simple methods can predict certain aspects well, they have limitations in specific scenarios. For instance, they can accurately predict wind speed changes in certain areas but might struggle in others. Ultimately, our goal was to make wind farm predictions more reliable and beneficial for the energy sector.
Christoffer Hallgren, Jeanie A. Aird, Stefan Ivanell, Heiner Körnich, Rebecca J. Barthelmie, Sara C. Pryor, and Erik Sahlée
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1651–1658, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1651-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1651-2023, 2023
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Low-level jets (LLJs) are special types of non-ideal wind profiles affecting both wind energy production and loads on a wind turbine. However, among LLJ researchers, there is no consensus regarding which definition to use to identify these profiles. In this work, we compare two different ways of identifying the LLJ – the falloff definition and the shear definition – and argue why the shear definition is better suited to wind energy applications.
Serkan Kartal, Sukanta Basu, and Simon J. Watson
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1533–1551, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1533-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1533-2023, 2023
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Peak wind gust is a crucial meteorological variable for wind farm planning and operations. Unfortunately, many wind farms do not have on-site measurements of it. In this paper, we propose a machine-learning approach (called INTRIGUE, decIsioN-TRee-based wInd GUst Estimation) that utilizes numerous inputs from a public-domain reanalysis dataset, generating long-term, site-specific peak wind gust series.
Nikolas Angelou, Jakob Mann, and Camille Dubreuil-Boisclair
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1511–1531, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1511-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1511-2023, 2023
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This study presents the first experimental investigation using two nacelle-mounted wind lidars that reveal the upwind and downwind conditions relative to a full-scale floating wind turbine. We find that in the case of floating wind turbines with small pitch and roll oscillating motions (< 1°), the ambient turbulence is the main driving factor that determines the propagation of the wake characteristics.
Christoffer Hallgren, Jeanie A. Aird, Stefan Ivanell, Heiner Körnich, Ville Vakkari, Rebecca J. Barthelmie, Sara C. Pryor, and Erik Sahlée
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-122, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-122, 2023
Revised manuscript under review for WES
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To know the wind speed across the rotor of a wind turbine is key in making good predictions of the power production. However, models struggle capturing both the speed and the shape of the wind profile. Using machine learning methods based on the model data, we show that the predictions can be improved drastically. The work focuses on three coastal sites, spread over the northern hemisphere (the Baltic Sea, the North Sea, and the US Atlantic coast) with similar results for all sites.
Scott Dallas, Adam Stock, and Edward Hart
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-93, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-93, 2023
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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This review presents the current understanding of wind direction variability in the context of control-oriented modelling of wind turbines and wind farms in a manner suitable to a wide audience. Motivation comes from the significant and commonly seen yaw error of horizontal axis wind turbines, which carries substantial negative impacts on annual energy production and the levelised cost of wind energy. Gaps in the literature are identified and the critical challenges in this area are discussed.
Lars Neuhaus, Matthias Wächter, and Joachim Peinke
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-73, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-73, 2023
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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Future wind turbines reach unprecedented heights and are affected by wind conditions that have not yet been studied in detail. With increasing height, a transition to laminar conditions with a turbulent/non-turbulent interface (TNTI) becomes more likely. In this paper, the presence and fractality of this TNTI in the atmosphere are studied. Typical fractalities known from ideal laboratory and numerical studies and a frequent occurrence of the TNTI at heights of multi-megawatt turbines are found.
Eliot Quon
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-101, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-101, 2023
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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Engineering models used to design wind farms generally do not account for aerodynamic interactions between turbines, turbine wakes, and the atmosphere over time. This paper uses a first-principles simulation technique to predict the performance of 5 turbines within an operational wind farm during a wake steering experiment. Challenges included limited atmospheric data and atypical conditions. The simulation was able to capture wake-induced flow speedup and the corresponding power increase.
Til Kristian Vrana and Harald G. Svendsen
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-76, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-76, 2023
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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We developed new ways to plot nice and comprehensive wind resource maps that show the revenue potential of different locations for future wind power developments. The relative capacity factor is introduced as an indicator showing the expected mean power output. The market value factor is introduced, that captures the expected mean market value relative to other wind parks. The RECom index combines the two into a single index, resulting in the RECom map.
Julian Quick, Pierre-Elouan Rethore, Mads Mølgaard Pedersen, Rafael Valotta Rodrigues, and Mikkel Friis-Møller
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1235–1250, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1235-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1235-2023, 2023
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Wind turbine positions are often optimized to avoid wake losses. These losses depend on atmospheric conditions, such as the wind speed and direction. The typical optimization scheme involves discretizing the atmospheric inputs, then considering every possible set of these discretized inputs in every optimization iteration. This work presents stochastic gradient descent (SGD) as an alternative, which randomly samples the atmospheric conditions during every optimization iteration.
Sarah J. Ollier and Simon J. Watson
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1179–1200, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1179-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1179-2023, 2023
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This modelling study shows that topographic trapped lee waves (TLWs) modify flow behaviour and power output in offshore wind farms. We demonstrate that TLWs can substantially alter the wind speeds at individual wind turbines and effect the power output of the turbine and whole wind farm. The impact on wind speeds and power is dependent on which part of the TLW wave cycle interacts with the wind turbines and wind farm. Positive and negative impacts of TLWs on power output are observed.
Khaled Yassin, Arne Helms, Daniela Moreno, Hassan Kassem, Leo Höning, and Laura J. Lukassen
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1133–1152, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1133-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1133-2023, 2023
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The current turbulent wind field models stated in the IEC 61400-1 standard underestimate the probability of extreme changes in wind velocity. This underestimation can lead to the false calculation of extreme and fatigue loads on the turbine. In this work, we are trying to apply a random time-mapping technique to one of the standard turbulence models to adapt to such extreme changes. The turbulent fields generated are compared with a standard wind field to show the effects of this new mapping.
Mark Kelly and Maarten Paul van der Laan
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 975–998, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-975-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-975-2023, 2023
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The turning of the wind with height, which is known as veer, can affect wind turbine performance. Thus far meteorology has only given idealized descriptions of veer, which has not yet been related in a way readily usable for wind energy. Here we derive equations for veer in terms of meteorological quantities and provide practically usable forms in terms of measurable shear (change in wind speed with height). Flow simulations and measurements at turbine heights support these developments.
Moritz Gräfe, Vasilis Pettas, Julia Gottschall, and Po Wen Cheng
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 925–946, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-925-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-925-2023, 2023
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Inflow wind field measurements from nacelle-based lidar systems offer great potential for different applications including turbine control, load validation and power performance measurements. On floating wind turbines nacelle-based lidar measurements are affected by the dynamic behavior of the floating foundations. Therefore, the effects on lidar wind speed measurements induced by floater dynamics must be well understood. A new model for quantification of these effects is introduced in our work.
Robin Marcille, Maxime Thiébaut, Pierre Tandeo, and Jean-François Filipot
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 771–786, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-771-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-771-2023, 2023
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A novel data-driven method is proposed to design an optimal sensor network for the reconstruction of offshore wind resources. Based on unsupervised learning of numerical weather prediction wind data, it provides a simple yet efficient method for the siting of sensors, outperforming state-of-the-art methods for this application. It is applied in the main French offshore wind energy development areas to provide guidelines for the deployment of floating lidars for wind resource assessment.
Wei Fu, Alessandro Sebastiani, Alfredo Peña, and Jakob Mann
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 677–690, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-677-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-677-2023, 2023
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Nacelle lidars with different beam scanning locations and two types of systems are considered for inflow turbulence estimations using both numerical simulations and field measurements. The turbulence estimates from a sonic anemometer at the hub height of a Vestas V52 turbine are used as references. The turbulence parameters are retrieved using the radial variances and a least-squares procedure. The findings from numerical simulations have been verified by the analysis of the field measurements.
Daniel Hatfield, Charlotte Bay Hasager, and Ioanna Karagali
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 621–637, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-621-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-621-2023, 2023
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Wind observations at heights relevant to the operation of modern offshore wind farms, i.e. 100 m and more, are required to optimize their positioning and layout. Satellite wind retrievals provide observations of the wind field over large spatial areas and extensive time periods, yet their temporal resolution is limited and they are only representative at 10 m height. Machine-learning models are applied to lift these satellite winds to higher heights, directly relevant to wind energy purposes.
Oliver Maas
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 535–556, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-535-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-535-2023, 2023
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The study compares small vs. large wind farms regarding the flow and power output with a turbulence-resolving simulation model. It shows that a large wind farm (90 km length) significantly affects the wind direction and that the wind speed is higher in the large wind farm wake. Both wind farms excite atmospheric gravity waves that also affect the power output of the wind farms.
Regis Thedin, Eliot Quon, Matthew Churchfield, and Paul Veers
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 487–502, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-487-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-487-2023, 2023
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We investigate coherence and correlation and highlight their importance for disciplines like wind energy structural dynamic analysis, in which blade loading and fatigue depend on turbulence structure. We compare coherence estimates to those computed using a model suggested by international standards. We show the differences and highlight additional information that can be gained using large-eddy simulation, further improving analytical coherence models used in synthetic turbulence generators.
Sheng-Lun Tai, Larry K. Berg, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Rob Newsom, and Anthony Kirincich
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 433–448, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-433-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-433-2023, 2023
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Turbulence intensity is critical for wind turbine design and operation as it affects wind power generation efficiency. Turbulence measurements in the marine environment are limited. We use a model to derive turbulence intensity and test how sea surface temperature data may impact the simulated turbulence intensity and atmospheric stability. The model slightly underestimates turbulence, and improved sea surface temperature data reduce the bias. Error with unrealistic mesoscale flow is identified.
Brandon Arthur Lobo, Özge Sinem Özçakmak, Helge Aagaard Madsen, Alois Peter Schaffarczyk, Michael Breuer, and Niels N. Sørensen
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 303–326, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-303-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-303-2023, 2023
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Results from the DAN-AERO and aerodynamic glove projects provide significant findings. The effects of inflow turbulence on transition and wind turbine blades are compared to computational fluid dynamic simulations. It is found that the transition scenario changes even over a single revolution. The importance of a suitable choice of amplification factor is evident from the simulations. An agreement between the power spectral density plots from the experiment and large-eddy simulations is seen.
Frédéric Blondel
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 141–147, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-141-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-141-2023, 2023
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Accurate wind farm flow predictions based on analytical wake models are crucial for wind farm design and layout optimization. Wake superposition methods play a key role and remain a substantial source of uncertainty. In the present work, a momentum-conserving superposition method is extended to the superposition of super-Gaussian-type velocity deficit models, allowing the full wake velocity deficit estimation and design of closely packed wind farms.
Abdul Haseeb Syed, Jakob Mann, Andreas Platis, and Jens Bange
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 125–139, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-125-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-125-2023, 2023
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Wind turbines extract energy from the incoming wind flow, which needs to be recovered. In very large offshore wind farms, the energy is recovered mostly from above the wind farm in a process called entrainment. In this study, we analyzed the effect of atmospheric stability on the entrainment process in large offshore wind farms using measurements recorded by a research aircraft. This is the first time that in situ measurements are used to study the energy recovery process above wind farms.
Kartik Venkatraman, Trond-Ola Hågbo, Sophia Buckingham, and Knut Erik Teigen Giljarhus
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 85–108, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-85-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-85-2023, 2023
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This paper is focused on the impact of modeling different effects, such as forest canopy and Coriolis forces, on the wind resource over a complex terrain site located near Perdigão, Portugal. A numerical model is set up and results are compared with field measurements. The results show that including a forest canopy improves the predictions close to the ground at some locations on the site, while the model with inflow from a precursor performed better at other locations.
Ishaan Sood, Elliot Simon, Athanasios Vitsas, Bart Blockmans, Gunner C. Larsen, and Johan Meyers
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2469–2489, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2469-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2469-2022, 2022
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In this work, we conduct a validation study to compare a numerical solver against measurements obtained from the offshore Lillgrund wind farm. By reusing a previously developed inflow turbulent dataset, the atmospheric conditions at the wind farm were recreated, and the general performance trends of the turbines were captured well. The work increases the reliability of numerical wind farm solvers while highlighting the challenges of accurately representing large wind farms using such solvers.
Xiaoli Guo Larsén and Søren Ott
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2457–2468, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2457-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2457-2022, 2022
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A method is developed for calculating the extreme wind in tropical-cyclone-affected water areas. The method is based on the spectral correction method that fills in the missing wind variability to the modeled time series, guided by best track data. The paper provides a detailed recipe for applying the method and the 50-year winds of equivalent 10 min temporal resolution from 10 to 150 m in several tropical-cyclone-affected regions.
Yulong Ma, Cristina L. Archer, and Ahmadreza Vasel-Be-Hagh
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2407–2431, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2407-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2407-2022, 2022
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Wind turbine wakes are important because they reduce the power production of wind farms and may cause unintended impacts on the weather around wind farms. Weather prediction models, like WRF and MPAS, are often used to predict both power and impacts of wind farms, but they lack an accurate treatment of wind farm wakes. We developed the Jensen wind farm parameterization, based on the existing Jensen model of an idealized wake. The Jensen parameterization is accurate and computationally efficient.
Andrea N. Hahmann, Oscar García-Santiago, and Alfredo Peña
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2373–2391, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2373-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2373-2022, 2022
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We explore the changes in wind energy resources in northern Europe using output from simulations from the Climate Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) under the high-emission scenario. Our results show that climate change does not particularly alter annual energy production in the North Sea but could affect the seasonal distribution of these resources, significantly reducing energy production during the summer from 2031 to 2050.
Turið Poulsen, Bárður A. Niclasen, Gregor Giebel, and Hans Georg Beyer
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2335–2350, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2335-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2335-2022, 2022
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Wind power is cheap and environmentally friendly, but it has a disadvantage: it is a variable power source. Because wind is not blowing everywhere simultaneously, optimal placement of wind farms can reduce the fluctuations.
This is explored for a small isolated area. Combining wind farms reduces wind power fluctuations for timescales up to 1–2 d. By optimally placing four wind farms, the hourly fluctuations are reduced by 15 %. These wind farms are located distant from each other.
Graziela Luzia, Andrea N. Hahmann, and Matti Juhani Koivisto
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2255–2270, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2255-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2255-2022, 2022
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This paper presents a comprehensive validation of time series produced by a mesoscale numerical weather model, a global reanalysis, and a wind atlas against observations by using a set of metrics that we present as requirements for wind energy integration studies. We perform a sensitivity analysis on the numerical weather model in multiple configurations, such as related to model grid spacing and nesting arrangements, to define the model setup that outperforms in various time series aspects.
Xiaodong Zhang and Anand Natarajan
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2135–2148, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2135-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2135-2022, 2022
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Joint probability distribution of 10 min mean wind speed and the standard deviation is proposed using the Gaussian mixture model and has been shown to agree well with 15 years of measurements. The environmental contour with a 50-year return period (extreme turbulence) is estimated. The results from the model could be taken as inputs for structural reliability analysis and uncertainty quantification of wind turbine design loads.
Alex Rybchuk, Timothy W. Juliano, Julie K. Lundquist, David Rosencrans, Nicola Bodini, and Mike Optis
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2085–2098, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2085-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2085-2022, 2022
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Numerical weather prediction models are used to predict how wind turbines will interact with the atmosphere. Here, we characterize the uncertainty associated with the choice of turbulence parameterization on modeled wakes. We find that simulated wind speed deficits in turbine wakes can be significantly sensitive to the choice of turbulence parameterization. As such, predictions of future generated power are also sensitive to turbulence parameterization choice.
Lindsay M. Sheridan, Raghu Krishnamurthy, Gabriel García Medina, Brian J. Gaudet, William I. Gustafson Jr., Alicia M. Mahon, William J. Shaw, Rob K. Newsom, Mikhail Pekour, and Zhaoqing Yang
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2059–2084, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2059-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2059-2022, 2022
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Using observations from lidar buoys, five reanalysis and analysis models that support the wind energy community are validated offshore and at rotor-level heights along the California Pacific coast. The models are found to underestimate the observed wind resource. Occasions of large model error occur in conjunction with stable atmospheric conditions, wind speeds associated with peak turbine power production, and mischaracterization of the diurnal wind speed cycle in summer months.
Sebastian Brune and Jan D. Keller
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1905–1918, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1905-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1905-2022, 2022
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A post-processing of the wind speed of the regional reanalysis COSMO-REA6 in Central Europe is performed based on a combined physical and statistical approach. The physical basis is provided by downscaling wind speeds with the help of a diagnostic wind model, which reduces the horizontal grid point spacing by a factor of 8. The statistical correction using a neural network based on different variables of the reanalysis leads to an improvement of 30 % in RMSE compared to COSMO-REA6.
Rieska Mawarni Putri, Etienne Cheynet, Charlotte Obhrai, and Jasna Bogunovic Jakobsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1693–1710, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1693-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1693-2022, 2022
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As offshore wind turbines' sizes are increasing, thorough knowledge of wind characteristics in the marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) is becoming crucial to help improve offshore wind turbine design and reliability. The present study discusses the wind characteristics at the first offshore wind farm, Vindeby, and compares them with the wind measurements at the FINO1 platform. Consistent wind characteristics are found between Vindeby measurements and the FINO1 measurements.
Pradip Zamre and Thorsten Lutz
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1661–1677, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1661-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1661-2022, 2022
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To get more insight into the influence of the urban-terrain flow on the performance of the rooftop-mounted two-bladed Darrieus vertical-axis wind turbine, scale resolving simulations are performed for a generic wind turbine in realistic terrain under turbulent conditions. It is found that the turbulence and skewed nature of the flow near rooftop locations have a positive impact on the performance of the wind turbine.
Eduardo Weide Luiz and Stephanie Fiedler
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1575–1591, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1575-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1575-2022, 2022
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This work analyses a meteorological event, called nocturnal low-level jets (NLLJs), defined as high wind speeds relatively close to the surface. There were positive and negative impacts from NLLJs. While NLLJs increased the mean power production, they also increased the variability in the wind with height. Our results imply that long NLLJ events are also larger, affecting many wind turbines at the same time. Short NLLJ events are more local, having stronger effects on power variability.
Patrick Letzgus, Giorgia Guma, and Thorsten Lutz
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1551–1573, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1551-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1551-2022, 2022
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The research article presents the results of a study of highly resolved numerical simulations of a wind energy test site in complex terrain that is currently under construction in the Swabian Alps in southern Germany. The numerical results emphasised the importance of considering orography, vegetation, and thermal stratification in numerical simulations to resolve the wind field decently. In this way, the effects on loads, power, and wake of the wind turbine can also be predicted well.
Niels Troldborg, Søren J. Andersen, Emily L. Hodgson, and Alexander Meyer Forsting
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1527–1532, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1527-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1527-2022, 2022
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This article shows that the power performance of a wind turbine may be very different in flat and complex terrain. This is an important finding because it shows that the power output of a given wind turbine is governed by not only the available wind at the position of the turbine but also how the ambient flow develops in the region behind the turbine.
Sarah Barber, Alain Schubiger, Sara Koller, Dominik Eggli, Alexander Radi, Andreas Rumpf, and Hermann Knaus
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1503–1525, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1503-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1503-2022, 2022
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In this work, a range of simulations are carried out with seven different wind modelling tools at five different complex terrain sites and the results compared to wind speed measurements at validation locations. This is then extended to annual energy production (AEP) estimations (without wake effects), showing that wind profile prediction accuracy does not translate directly or linearly to AEP accuracy. It is therefore vital to consider overall AEP when evaluating simulation accuracies.
Louis de Montera, Henrick Berger, Romain Husson, Pascal Appelghem, Laurent Guerlou, and Mauricio Fragoso
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1441–1453, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1441-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1441-2022, 2022
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A novel method for estimating offshore wind resources at turbine hub height with synthetic aperture radar (SAR) satellites is presented. The machine learning algorithm uses as input geometrical parameters of the SAR sensors and parameters related to atmospheric stability. It is trained with Doppler wind lidar vertical profiles. The extractable wind power accuracy up to 200 m is within 3 %, and SAR can resolve the coastal wind gradient, unlike the Weather Research and Forecasting numerical mode.
Florian Wenz, Judith Langner, Thorsten Lutz, and Ewald Krämer
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1321–1340, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1321-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1321-2022, 2022
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To get a better understanding of the influence of the terrain flow on the unsteady pressure distributions on the wind turbine surface, a fully resolved turbine was simulated in the complex terrain of Perdigão, Portugal. It was found that the pressure fluctuations at the tower caused by vortex shedding are significantly hampered by the terrain flow, while the pressure fluctuations caused by the blade–tower interaction are hardly changed.
Rad Haghi and Curran Crawford
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1289–1304, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1289-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1289-2022, 2022
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Based on the IEC standards, a limited number of simulations is sufficient to calculate the extreme and fatigue loads on a wind turbine. However, this means inaccuracy in the output statistics. This paper aims to build a surrogate model on blade element momentum aerodynamic model simulation output employing non-intrusive polynomial chaos expansion. The surrogate model is then used in a large number of Monte Carlo simulations to provide an accurate statistical estimate of the loads.
Beatriz Cañadillas, Maximilian Beckenbauer, Juan J. Trujillo, Martin Dörenkämper, Richard Foreman, Thomas Neumann, and Astrid Lampert
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1241–1262, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1241-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1241-2022, 2022
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Scanning lidar measurements combined with meteorological sensors and mesoscale simulations reveal the strong directional and stability dependence of the wake strength in the direct vicinity of wind farm clusters.
Christoffer Hallgren, Johan Arnqvist, Erik Nilsson, Stefan Ivanell, Metodija Shapkalijevski, August Thomasson, Heidi Pettersson, and Erik Sahlée
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1183–1207, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1183-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1183-2022, 2022
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Non-idealized wind profiles with negative shear in part of the profile (e.g., low-level jets) frequently occur in coastal environments and are important to take into consideration for offshore wind power. Using observations from a coastal site in the Baltic Sea, we analyze in which meteorological and sea state conditions these profiles occur and study how they alter the turbulence structure of the boundary layer compared to idealized profiles.
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Short summary
We propose that considering large-scale wind direction changes in the computation of wind farm cluster wakes is of high relevance. Consequently, we present a new solution for engineering modeling tools that accounts for the effect of such changes in the propagation of wakes. The new model is evaluated with satellite data in the German Bight area. It has the potential to reduce uncertainty in applications such as site assessment and short-term power forecasting.
We propose that considering large-scale wind direction changes in the computation of wind farm...
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