Articles | Volume 10, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-361-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-361-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
04 Feb 2025
Research article |
| 04 Feb 2025
| 04 Feb 2025
Observations of wind farm wake recovery at an operating wind farm
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, United States of America
Rob K. Newsom
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, United States of America
Colleen M. Kaul
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, United States of America
Stefano Letizia
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, United States of America
Mikhail Pekour
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, United States of America
Nicholas Hamilton
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, United States of America
Duli Chand
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, United States of America
Donna Flynn
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, United States of America
Nicola Bodini
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, United States of America
Patrick Moriarty
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, United States of America
Related authors
Aliza Abraham, Matteo Puccioni, Arianna Jordan, Emina Maric, Nicola Bodini, Nicholas Hamilton, Stefano Letizia, Petra M. Klein, Elizabeth N. Smith, Sonia Wharton, Jonathan Gero, Jamey D. Jacob, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Rob K. Newsom, Mikhail Pekour, William Radünz, and Patrick Moriarty
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1681–1705, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1681-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1681-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study is the first to use real-world atmospheric measurements to show that large wind plants can increase the height of the planetary boundary layer, the part of the atmosphere near the surface where life takes place. The planetary boundary layer height governs processes like pollutant transport and cloud formation and is a key parameter for modeling the atmosphere. The results of this study provide important insights into interactions between wind plants and their local environment.
Damao Zhang, Jennifer Comstock, Chitra Sivaraman, Kefei Mo, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Jingjing Tian, Tianning Su, Zhanqing Li, and Natalia Roldán-Henao
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 18, 3453–3475, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-3453-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-3453-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Planetary boundary layer height (PBLHT) is an important parameter in atmospheric process studies and numerical model simulations. We use machine learning methods to produce a best-estimate planetary boundary layer height (PBLHT-BE-ML) by integrating four PBLHT estimates derived from remote sensing measurements. We demonstrated that PBLHT-BE-ML greatly improved the comparisons against sounding-derived PBLHT.
Jungmin Lee, Virendra P. Ghate, Arka Mitra, Lee M. Miller, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, and Ulrike Egerer
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-108, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-108, 2025
Preprint under review for WES
Short summary
Short summary
This study compares weather model predictions to real-world measurements of wind and clouds off California's coast, where offshore wind farms are planned. It finds the model often underestimates wind speeds in cloudy conditions and shows larger errors in clear skies. These results highlight when and where the model is most accurate, helping improve wind forecasts and support better planning for offshore wind energy projects.
Macy Frost Chang, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, and Fotini Katopodes Chow
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-85, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-85, 2025
Preprint under review for WES
Short summary
Short summary
The development of offshore wind energy sites hinges on accurate prediction of hub-height wind speeds. This paper compares three machine learning (ML) algorithms to a standard log-law wind extrapolation at two offshore buoy sites. The ML methods demonstrate new capabilities for providing accurate and adaptable predictions of offshore wind characteristics in comparison to conventional approaches. These ML techniques can help inform the development of offshore wind energy projects.
Adam S. Wise, Robert S. Arthur, Aliza Abraham, Sonia Wharton, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Rob Newsom, Brian Hirth, John Schroeder, Patrick Moriarty, and Fotini K. Chow
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1007–1032, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1007-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1007-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Wind farms can be subject to rapidly changing weather events. In the United States Great Plains, some of these weather events can result in waves in the atmosphere that ultimately affect how much power a wind farm can produce. We modeled a specific event of waves observed in Oklahoma. We determined how to accurately model the event and analyzed how it affected a wind farm’s power production, finding that the waves both decreased power and made it more variable.
Arka Mitra, Virendra Ghate, and Raghavendra Krishnamurthy
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-55, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-55, 2025
Revised manuscript under review for WES
Short summary
Short summary
This study introduces a new metric to quantify the spatiotemporal variability of wind resources and a novel numerical technique to locate the optimal wind resource within a large wind farm. The new metric and the novel optimization technique are applied to assist in the pre-construction wind resource assessments of two Californian offshore wind energy areas. This optimization is stable for a diverse choice of wind turbines and is easily scalable and adaptable to any other offshore location.
Ye Liu, Timothy W. Juliano, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Brian J. Gaudet, and Jungmin Lee
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 483–495, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-483-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-483-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Our study reveals how different weather patterns influence wind conditions off the US West Coast. We identified key weather patterns affecting wind speeds at potential wind farm sites using advanced machine learning. This research helps improve weather prediction models, making wind energy production more reliable and efficient.
Nicola Bodini, Mike Optis, Stephanie Redfern, David Rosencrans, Alex Rybchuk, Julie K. Lundquist, Vincent Pronk, Simon Castagneri, Avi Purkayastha, Caroline Draxl, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Ethan Young, Billy Roberts, Evan Rosenlieb, and Walter Musial
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 1965–2006, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-1965-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-1965-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This article presents the 2023 National Offshore Wind data set (NOW-23), an updated resource for offshore wind information in the US. It replaces the Wind Integration National Dataset (WIND) Toolkit, offering improved accuracy through advanced weather prediction models. The data underwent regional tuning and validation and can be accessed at no cost.
Lindsay M. Sheridan, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, William I. Gustafson Jr., Ye Liu, Brian J. Gaudet, Nicola Bodini, Rob K. Newsom, and Mikhail Pekour
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 741–758, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-741-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-741-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In 2020, lidar-mounted buoys owned by the US Department of Energy (DOE) were deployed off the California coast in two wind energy lease areas and provided valuable year-long analyses of offshore low-level jet (LLJ) characteristics at heights relevant to wind turbines. In addition to the LLJ climatology, this work provides validation of LLJ representation in atmospheric models that are essential for assessing the potential energy yield of offshore wind farms.
Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Gabriel García Medina, Brian Gaudet, William I. Gustafson Jr., Evgueni I. Kassianov, Jinliang Liu, Rob K. Newsom, Lindsay M. Sheridan, and Alicia M. Mahon
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 5667–5699, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5667-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5667-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Our understanding and ability to observe and model air–sea processes has been identified as a principal limitation to our ability to predict future weather. Few observations exist offshore along the coast of California. To improve our understanding of the air–sea transition zone and support the wind energy industry, two buoys with state-of-the-art equipment were deployed for 1 year. In this article, we present details of the post-processing, algorithms, and analyses.
Sheng-Lun Tai, Larry K. Berg, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Rob Newsom, and Anthony Kirincich
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 433–448, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-433-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-433-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Turbulence intensity is critical for wind turbine design and operation as it affects wind power generation efficiency. Turbulence measurements in the marine environment are limited. We use a model to derive turbulence intensity and test how sea surface temperature data may impact the simulated turbulence intensity and atmospheric stability. The model slightly underestimates turbulence, and improved sea surface temperature data reduce the bias. Error with unrealistic mesoscale flow is identified.
Lindsay M. Sheridan, Raghu Krishnamurthy, Gabriel García Medina, Brian J. Gaudet, William I. Gustafson Jr., Alicia M. Mahon, William J. Shaw, Rob K. Newsom, Mikhail Pekour, and Zhaoqing Yang
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2059–2084, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2059-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2059-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Using observations from lidar buoys, five reanalysis and analysis models that support the wind energy community are validated offshore and at rotor-level heights along the California Pacific coast. The models are found to underestimate the observed wind resource. Occasions of large model error occur in conjunction with stable atmospheric conditions, wind speeds associated with peak turbine power production, and mischaracterization of the diurnal wind speed cycle in summer months.
Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Rob K. Newsom, Larry K. Berg, Heng Xiao, Po-Lun Ma, and David D. Turner
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 4403–4424, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-4403-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-4403-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Planetary boundary layer (PBL) height is a critical parameter in atmospheric models. Continuous PBL height measurements from remote sensing measurements are important to understand various boundary layer mechanisms, especially during daytime and evening transition periods. Due to several limitations in existing methodologies to detect PBL height from a Doppler lidar, in this study, a machine learning (ML) approach is tested. The ML model is observed to improve the accuracy by over 50 %.
Daniel Vassallo, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, and Harindra J. S. Fernando
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 295–309, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-295-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-295-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Machine learning is quickly becoming a commonly used technique for wind speed and power forecasting and is especially useful when combined with other forecasting techniques. This study utilizes a popular machine learning algorithm, random forest, in an attempt to predict the forecasting error of a statistical forecasting model. Various atmospheric characteristics are used as random forest inputs in an effort to discern the most useful atmospheric information for this purpose.
Pietro Bortolotti, Lee Jay Fingersh, Nicholas Hamilton, Arlinda Huskey, Chris Ivanov, Mark Iverson, Jonathan Keller, Scott Lambert, Jason Roadman, Derek Slaughter, Syhoune Thao, and Consuelo Wells
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 2025–2050, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-2025-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-2025-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study compares a wind turbine with blades behind the tower (downwind) to the traditional upwind design. Testing a 1.5 MW turbine at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory's Flatirons Campus, we measured performance, loads, and noise. Numerical models matched well with observations. The downwind setup showed higher fatigue loads and sound variations but also an unexpected power improvement. Downwind rotors might be a valid alternative for future floating offshore wind applications.
Aliza Abraham, Matteo Puccioni, Arianna Jordan, Emina Maric, Nicola Bodini, Nicholas Hamilton, Stefano Letizia, Petra M. Klein, Elizabeth N. Smith, Sonia Wharton, Jonathan Gero, Jamey D. Jacob, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Rob K. Newsom, Mikhail Pekour, William Radünz, and Patrick Moriarty
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1681–1705, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1681-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1681-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study is the first to use real-world atmospheric measurements to show that large wind plants can increase the height of the planetary boundary layer, the part of the atmosphere near the surface where life takes place. The planetary boundary layer height governs processes like pollutant transport and cloud formation and is a key parameter for modeling the atmosphere. The results of this study provide important insights into interactions between wind plants and their local environment.
Yelena L. Pichugina, Alan W. Brewer, Sunil Baidar, Robert Banta, Edward Strobach, Brandi McCarty, Brian Carroll, Nicola Bodini, Stefano Letizia, Richard Marchbanks, Michael Zucker, Maxwell Holloway, and Patrick Moriarty
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-79, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-79, 2025
Preprint under review for WES
Short summary
Short summary
The truck-based Doppler lidar system was used during the American Wake Experiment (AWAKEN) to obtain the high-frequency, simultaneous measurements of the horizontal wind speed, direction, and vertical-velocity from a moving platform. The paper presents the unique capability of the novel lidar system to characterize the temporal, vertical, and spatial variability of winds at various distances from operating turbines and obtain quantitative estimates of wind speed reduction in the waked flow.
Nicholas Hamilton and Shreyas Bidadi
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-137, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-137, 2025
Preprint under review for WES
Short summary
Short summary
This study explores improvements to an atmospheric measurement method called acoustic tomography, which uses sound travel times to estimate wind and temperature. We compare several ways of estimating how air conditions vary and show that models based on realistic wind turbine simulations yield more accurate results than traditional simplified methods. These findings support better observations of complex air flows around wind turbines, helping advance renewable energy research.
Lindsay M. Sheridan, Jiali Wang, Caroline Draxl, Nicola Bodini, Caleb Phillips, Dmitry Duplyakin, Heidi Tinnesand, Raj K. Rai, Julia E. Flaherty, Larry K. Berg, Chunyong Jung, Ethan Young, and Rao Kotamarthi
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1551–1574, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1551-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1551-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Three recent wind resource datasets are assessed for their skills in representing annual average wind speeds and seasonal, diurnal, and interannual trends in the wind resource in coastal locations to support customers interested in small and midsize wind energy.
Anna Voss, Konrad B. Bärfuss, Beatriz Cañadillas, Maik Angermann, Mark Bitter, Matthias Cremer, Thomas Feuerle, Jonas Spoor, Julie K. Lundquist, Patrick Moriarty, and Astrid Lampert
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-113, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-113, 2025
Preprint under review for WES
Short summary
Short summary
This study analyses onshore wind farm wakes in a semi-complex terrain with data conducted with the research aircraft of TU Braunschweig during the AWAKEN project. Vertical profiles of temperature, humidity and wind give insights into the stratification of the atmospheric boundary layer, while horizontal profiles downwind of wind farms reveal an amplification of the reduction in wind speed in a semi-complex terrain in particular in a distance of 10 km.
Damao Zhang, Jennifer Comstock, Chitra Sivaraman, Kefei Mo, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Jingjing Tian, Tianning Su, Zhanqing Li, and Natalia Roldán-Henao
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 18, 3453–3475, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-3453-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-3453-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Planetary boundary layer height (PBLHT) is an important parameter in atmospheric process studies and numerical model simulations. We use machine learning methods to produce a best-estimate planetary boundary layer height (PBLHT-BE-ML) by integrating four PBLHT estimates derived from remote sensing measurements. We demonstrated that PBLHT-BE-ML greatly improved the comparisons against sounding-derived PBLHT.
Daphne Quint, Julie K. Lundquist, Nicola Bodini, and David Rosencrans
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1269–1301, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1269-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1269-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Offshore wind farms along the US East Coast can have limited effects on local weather. To study these effects, we include wind farms near Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and we test different amounts of turbulence in our model. We analyze changes in wind, temperature, and turbulence. Simulated effects on surface temperature and turbulence change depending on how much turbulence is added to the model. The extent of the wind farm wake depends on how deep the atmospheric boundary layer is.
Jungmin Lee, Virendra P. Ghate, Arka Mitra, Lee M. Miller, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, and Ulrike Egerer
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-108, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-108, 2025
Preprint under review for WES
Short summary
Short summary
This study compares weather model predictions to real-world measurements of wind and clouds off California's coast, where offshore wind farms are planned. It finds the model often underestimates wind speeds in cloudy conditions and shows larger errors in clear skies. These results highlight when and where the model is most accurate, helping improve wind forecasts and support better planning for offshore wind energy projects.
Macy Frost Chang, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, and Fotini Katopodes Chow
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-85, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-85, 2025
Preprint under review for WES
Short summary
Short summary
The development of offshore wind energy sites hinges on accurate prediction of hub-height wind speeds. This paper compares three machine learning (ML) algorithms to a standard log-law wind extrapolation at two offshore buoy sites. The ML methods demonstrate new capabilities for providing accurate and adaptable predictions of offshore wind characteristics in comparison to conventional approaches. These ML techniques can help inform the development of offshore wind energy projects.
Adam S. Wise, Robert S. Arthur, Aliza Abraham, Sonia Wharton, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Rob Newsom, Brian Hirth, John Schroeder, Patrick Moriarty, and Fotini K. Chow
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1007–1032, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1007-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1007-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Wind farms can be subject to rapidly changing weather events. In the United States Great Plains, some of these weather events can result in waves in the atmosphere that ultimately affect how much power a wind farm can produce. We modeled a specific event of waves observed in Oklahoma. We determined how to accurately model the event and analyzed how it affected a wind farm’s power production, finding that the waves both decreased power and made it more variable.
Ryan C. Sullivan, David P. Billesbach, Sebastien Biraud, Stephen Chan, Richard Hart, Evan Keeler, Jenni Kyrouac, Sujan Pal, Mikhail Pekour, Sara L. Sullivan, Adam Theisen, Matt Tuftedal, and David R. Cook
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-168, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-168, 2025
Revised manuscript accepted for ESSD
Short summary
Short summary
Turbulent fluxes quantify energy, water, or trace gases exchange into and out of the atmosphere. The US Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement user facility has been making atmospheric measurements since the early 1990's, including of turbulent fluxes using two well-established methods: energy balance Bowen ratio and eddy covariance. This manuscript documents key aspects of these datasets, including their history, changes through time, and best use practices.
Arka Mitra, Virendra Ghate, and Raghavendra Krishnamurthy
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-55, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-55, 2025
Revised manuscript under review for WES
Short summary
Short summary
This study introduces a new metric to quantify the spatiotemporal variability of wind resources and a novel numerical technique to locate the optimal wind resource within a large wind farm. The new metric and the novel optimization technique are applied to assist in the pre-construction wind resource assessments of two Californian offshore wind energy areas. This optimization is stable for a diverse choice of wind turbines and is easily scalable and adaptable to any other offshore location.
Fan Mei, Qi Zhang, Damao Zhang, Jerome D. Fast, Gourihar Kulkarni, Mikhail S. Pekour, Christopher R. Niedek, Susanne Glienke, Israel Silber, Beat Schmid, Jason M. Tomlinson, Hardeep S. Mehta, Xena Mansoura, Zezhen Cheng, Gregory W. Vandergrift, Nurun Nahar Lata, Swarup China, and Zihua Zhu
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 3425–3444, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-3425-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-3425-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study highlights the unique capability of the ArcticShark, an uncrewed aerial system, in measuring vertically resolved atmospheric properties. Data from 32 research flights in 2023 reveal seasonal patterns and correlations with conventional measurements. The consistency and complementarity of in situ and remote sensing methods are highlighted. The study demonstrates the ArcticShark’s versatility in bridging data gaps and improving the understanding of vertical atmospheric structures.
Ye Liu, Timothy W. Juliano, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Brian J. Gaudet, and Jungmin Lee
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 483–495, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-483-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-483-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Our study reveals how different weather patterns influence wind conditions off the US West Coast. We identified key weather patterns affecting wind speeds at potential wind farm sites using advanced machine learning. This research helps improve weather prediction models, making wind energy production more reliable and efficient.
Gopal R. Yalla, Kenneth Brown, Lawrence Cheung, Dan Houck, Nathaniel deVelder, and Nicholas Hamilton
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-14, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-14, 2025
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
Short summary
Short summary
When wind reaches the first set of turbines in a wind farm, energy is extracted, reducing the energy available for downstream turbines. This study examines emerging technologies aimed at re-energizing the wind between turbines in a wind farm to improve overall power production. Optimizing these technologies depends on understanding complex features of the atmosphere and the wakes behind turbines, which is accomplished using high fidelity computer simulations and data analysis techniques.
Sheng-Lun Tai, Zhao Yang, Brian Gaudet, Koichi Sakaguchi, Larry Berg, Colleen Kaul, Yun Qian, Ye Liu, and Jerome Fast
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2024-599, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2024-599, 2025
Revised manuscript accepted for ESSD
Short summary
Short summary
Our study created a high-resolution soil moisture dataset for the eastern U.S. by integrating satellite data with a land surface model and advanced algorithms, achieving 1-km scale analyses. Validated against multiple networks and datasets, it demonstrated superior accuracy. This dataset is vital for understanding soil moisture dynamics, especially during droughts, and highlights the need for improved modeling of clay soils to refine future predictions.
David Rosencrans, Julie K. Lundquist, Mike Optis, and Nicola Bodini
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 59–81, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-59-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-59-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The US offshore wind industry is growing rapidly. Expansion into cold climates will subject turbines and personnel to hazardous icing. We analyze the 21-year icing risk for US east coast wind areas based on numerical weather prediction simulations and further assess impacts from wind farm wakes over one winter season. Sea spray icing at 10 m can occur up to 67 h per month. However, turbine–atmosphere interactions reduce icing hours within wind plant areas.
William Radünz, Bruno Carmo, Julie K. Lundquist, Stefano Letizia, Aliza Abraham, Adam S. Wise, Miguel Sanchez Gomez, Nicholas Hamilton, Raj K. Rai, and Pedro S. Peixoto
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-166, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-166, 2025
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigates how simple terrain can cause significant variations in wind speed, especially during specific atmospheric conditions like low-level jets. By combining simulations and observations from a real wind farm, we found that downstream turbines generate more power than upstream ones, despite wake effects only impacting the upstream turbines. We highlight the crucial role of the strong vertical wind speed gradient in low-level jets in driving this effect.
Jerome D. Fast, Adam C. Varble, Fan Mei, Mikhail Pekour, Jason Tomlinson, Alla Zelenyuk, Art J. Sedlacek III, Maria Zawadowicz, and Louisa Emmons
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 13477–13502, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-13477-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-13477-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Aerosol property measurements recently collected on the ground and by a research aircraft in central Argentina during the Cloud, Aerosol, and Complex Terrain Interactions (CACTI) campaign exhibit large spatial and temporal variability. These measurements coupled with coincident meteorological information provide a valuable data set needed to evaluate and improve model predictions of aerosols in a traditionally data-sparse region of South America.
Fan Mei, Jennifer M. Comstock, Mikhail S. Pekour, Jerome D. Fast, Krista L. Gaustad, Beat Schmid, Shuaiqi Tang, Damao Zhang, John E. Shilling, Jason M. Tomlinson, Adam C. Varble, Jian Wang, L. Ruby Leung, Lawrence Kleinman, Scot Martin, Sebastien C. Biraud, Brian D. Ermold, and Kenneth W. Burk
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 5429–5448, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-5429-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-5429-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Our study explores a comprehensive dataset from airborne field studies (2013–2018) conducted using the US Department of Energy's Gulfstream 1 (G-1). The 236 flights span diverse regions, including the Arctic, US Southern Great Plains, US West Coast, eastern North Atlantic, Amazon Basin in Brazil, and Sierras de Córdoba range in Argentina. This dataset provides unique insights into atmospheric dynamics, aerosols, and clouds and makes data available in a more accessible format.
Majid Bastankhah, Marcus Becker, Matthew Churchfield, Caroline Draxl, Jay Prakash Goit, Mehtab Khan, Luis A. Martinez Tossas, Johan Meyers, Patrick Moriarty, Wim Munters, Asim Önder, Sara Porchetta, Eliot Quon, Ishaan Sood, Nicole van Lipzig, Jan-Willem van Wingerden, Paul Veers, and Simon Watson
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 2171–2174, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2171-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2171-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Dries Allaerts was born on 19 May 1989 and passed away at his home in Wezemaal, Belgium, on 10 October 2024 after battling cancer. Dries started his wind energy career in 2012 and had a profound impact afterward on the community, in terms of both his scientific realizations and his many friendships and collaborations in the field. His scientific acumen, open spirit of collaboration, positive attitude towards life, and playful and often cheeky sense of humor will be deeply missed by many.
Kenneth Brown, Pietro Bortolotti, Emmanuel Branlard, Mayank Chetan, Scott Dana, Nathaniel deVelder, Paula Doubrawa, Nicholas Hamilton, Hristo Ivanov, Jason Jonkman, Christopher Kelley, and Daniel Zalkind
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1791–1810, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1791-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1791-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents a study of the popular wind turbine design tool OpenFAST. We compare simulation results to measurements obtained from a 2.8 MW land-based wind turbine. Measured wind conditions were used to generate turbulent flow fields through several techniques. We show that successful validation of the tool is not strongly dependent on the inflow generation technique used for mean quantities of interest. The type of inflow assimilation method has a larger effect on fatigue quantities.
Nicola Bodini, Mike Optis, Stephanie Redfern, David Rosencrans, Alex Rybchuk, Julie K. Lundquist, Vincent Pronk, Simon Castagneri, Avi Purkayastha, Caroline Draxl, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Ethan Young, Billy Roberts, Evan Rosenlieb, and Walter Musial
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 1965–2006, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-1965-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-1965-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This article presents the 2023 National Offshore Wind data set (NOW-23), an updated resource for offshore wind information in the US. It replaces the Wind Integration National Dataset (WIND) Toolkit, offering improved accuracy through advanced weather prediction models. The data underwent regional tuning and validation and can be accessed at no cost.
Lindsay M. Sheridan, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, William I. Gustafson Jr., Ye Liu, Brian J. Gaudet, Nicola Bodini, Rob K. Newsom, and Mikhail Pekour
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 741–758, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-741-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-741-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In 2020, lidar-mounted buoys owned by the US Department of Energy (DOE) were deployed off the California coast in two wind energy lease areas and provided valuable year-long analyses of offshore low-level jet (LLJ) characteristics at heights relevant to wind turbines. In addition to the LLJ climatology, this work provides validation of LLJ representation in atmospheric models that are essential for assessing the potential energy yield of offshore wind farms.
David Rosencrans, Julie K. Lundquist, Mike Optis, Alex Rybchuk, Nicola Bodini, and Michael Rossol
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 555–583, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-555-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-555-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The US offshore wind industry is developing rapidly. Using yearlong simulations of wind plants in the US mid-Atlantic, we assess the impacts of wind turbine wakes. While wakes are the strongest and longest during summertime stably stratified conditions, when New England grid demand peaks, they are predictable and thus manageable. Over a year, wakes reduce power output by over 35 %. Wakes in a wind plant contribute the most to that reduction, while wakes between wind plants play a secondary role.
Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Gabriel García Medina, Brian Gaudet, William I. Gustafson Jr., Evgueni I. Kassianov, Jinliang Liu, Rob K. Newsom, Lindsay M. Sheridan, and Alicia M. Mahon
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 5667–5699, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5667-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5667-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Our understanding and ability to observe and model air–sea processes has been identified as a principal limitation to our ability to predict future weather. Few observations exist offshore along the coast of California. To improve our understanding of the air–sea transition zone and support the wind energy industry, two buoys with state-of-the-art equipment were deployed for 1 year. In this article, we present details of the post-processing, algorithms, and analyses.
Shuaiqi Tang, Adam C. Varble, Jerome D. Fast, Kai Zhang, Peng Wu, Xiquan Dong, Fan Mei, Mikhail Pekour, Joseph C. Hardin, and Po-Lun Ma
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 6355–6376, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6355-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6355-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
To assess the ability of Earth system model (ESM) predictions, we developed a tool called ESMAC Diags to understand how aerosols, clouds, and aerosol–cloud interactions are represented in ESMs. This paper describes its version 2 functionality. We compared the model predictions with measurements taken by planes, ships, satellites, and ground instruments over four regions across the world. Results show that this new tool can help identify model problems and guide future development of ESMs.
Paul Hulsman, Luis A. Martínez-Tossas, Nicholas Hamilton, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-112, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-112, 2023
Manuscript not accepted for further review
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents an approach to analytically estimate the wake deficit within the near-wake region by modifying the curled wake model. This is done by incorporating a new initial condition at the rotor using an azimuth-dependent Gaussian profile, an adjusted turbulence model in the near-wake region and the far-wake region and an iterative process to determine the velocity field, while considering the relation of the pressure gradient and accounting the conservation of mass.
Sue Ellen Haupt, Branko Kosović, Larry K. Berg, Colleen M. Kaul, Matthew Churchfield, Jeffrey Mirocha, Dries Allaerts, Thomas Brummet, Shannon Davis, Amy DeCastro, Susan Dettling, Caroline Draxl, David John Gagne, Patrick Hawbecker, Pankaj Jha, Timothy Juliano, William Lassman, Eliot Quon, Raj K. Rai, Michael Robinson, William Shaw, and Regis Thedin
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1251–1275, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1251-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1251-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Mesoscale to Microscale Coupling team, part of the U.S. Department of Energy Atmosphere to Electrons (A2e) initiative, has studied various important challenges related to coupling mesoscale models to microscale models. Lessons learned and discerned best practices are described in the context of the cases studied for the purpose of enabling further deployment of wind energy. It also points to code, assessment tools, and data for testing the methods.
Paul Veers, Carlo L. Bottasso, Lance Manuel, Jonathan Naughton, Lucy Pao, Joshua Paquette, Amy Robertson, Michael Robinson, Shreyas Ananthan, Thanasis Barlas, Alessandro Bianchini, Henrik Bredmose, Sergio González Horcas, Jonathan Keller, Helge Aagaard Madsen, James Manwell, Patrick Moriarty, Stephen Nolet, and Jennifer Rinker
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1071–1131, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1071-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1071-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Critical unknowns in the design, manufacturing, and operation of future wind turbine and wind plant systems are articulated, and key research activities are recommended.
Nicola Bodini, Simon Castagneri, and Mike Optis
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 607–620, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-607-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-607-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) has published updated maps of the wind resource along all US coasts. Given the upcoming offshore wind development, it is essential to quantify the uncertainty that comes with the modeled wind resource data set. The paper proposes a novel approach to quantify this numerical uncertainty by leveraging available observations along the US East Coast.
Ryan Scott, Luis Martínez-Tossas, Juliaan Bossuyt, Nicholas Hamilton, and Raúl B. Cal
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 449–463, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-449-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-449-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
In this work we examine the relationship between wind speed and turbulent stresses within a wind turbine wake. This relationship changes further from the turbine as the driving physical phenomena vary throughout the wake. We propose a model for this process and test the effectiveness of our model against existing formulations. Our approach increases the accuracy of wind speed predictions, which will lead to better estimates of wind plant performance and promote more efficient wind plant design.
Sheng-Lun Tai, Larry K. Berg, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Rob Newsom, and Anthony Kirincich
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 433–448, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-433-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-433-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Turbulence intensity is critical for wind turbine design and operation as it affects wind power generation efficiency. Turbulence measurements in the marine environment are limited. We use a model to derive turbulence intensity and test how sea surface temperature data may impact the simulated turbulence intensity and atmospheric stability. The model slightly underestimates turbulence, and improved sea surface temperature data reduce the bias. Error with unrealistic mesoscale flow is identified.
Siegfried Schobesberger, Emma L. D'Ambro, Lejish Vettikkat, Ben H. Lee, Qiaoyun Peng, David M. Bell, John E. Shilling, Manish Shrivastava, Mikhail Pekour, Jerome Fast, and Joel A. Thornton
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 247–271, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-247-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-247-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We present a new, highly sensitive technique for measuring atmospheric ammonia, an important trace gas that is emitted mainly by agriculture. We deployed the instrument on an aircraft during research flights over rural Oklahoma. Due to its fast response, we could analyze correlations with turbulent winds and calculate ammonia emissions from nearby areas at 1 to 2 km resolution. We observed high spatial variability and point sources that are not resolved in the US National Emissions Inventory.
Alex Rybchuk, Timothy W. Juliano, Julie K. Lundquist, David Rosencrans, Nicola Bodini, and Mike Optis
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2085–2098, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2085-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2085-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Numerical weather prediction models are used to predict how wind turbines will interact with the atmosphere. Here, we characterize the uncertainty associated with the choice of turbulence parameterization on modeled wakes. We find that simulated wind speed deficits in turbine wakes can be significantly sensitive to the choice of turbulence parameterization. As such, predictions of future generated power are also sensitive to turbulence parameterization choice.
Lindsay M. Sheridan, Raghu Krishnamurthy, Gabriel García Medina, Brian J. Gaudet, William I. Gustafson Jr., Alicia M. Mahon, William J. Shaw, Rob K. Newsom, Mikhail Pekour, and Zhaoqing Yang
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2059–2084, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2059-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2059-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Using observations from lidar buoys, five reanalysis and analysis models that support the wind energy community are validated offshore and at rotor-level heights along the California Pacific coast. The models are found to underestimate the observed wind resource. Occasions of large model error occur in conjunction with stable atmospheric conditions, wind speeds associated with peak turbine power production, and mischaracterization of the diurnal wind speed cycle in summer months.
Fan Mei, Mikhail S. Pekour, Darielle Dexheimer, Gijs de Boer, RaeAnn Cook, Jason Tomlinson, Beat Schmid, Lexie A. Goldberger, Rob Newsom, and Jerome D. Fast
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 3423–3438, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-3423-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-3423-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This work focuses on an expanding number of data sets observed using ARM TBS (133 flights) and UAS (seven flights) platforms by the Department of Energy (DOE) Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) user facility. These data streams provide new perspectives on spatial variability of atmospheric and surface parameters, helping to address critical science questions in Earth system science research, such as the aerosol–cloud interaction in the boundary layer.
Emmanouil M. Nanos, Carlo L. Bottasso, Filippo Campagnolo, Franz Mühle, Stefano Letizia, G. Valerio Iungo, and Mario A. Rotea
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1263–1287, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1263-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1263-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The paper describes the design of a scaled wind turbine in detail, for studying wakes and wake control applications in the known, controllable and repeatable conditions of a wind tunnel. The scaled model is characterized by conducting experiments in two wind tunnels, in different conditions, using different measurement equipment. Results are also compared to predictions obtained with models of various fidelity. The analysis indicates that the model fully satisfies the initial requirements.
Vincent Pronk, Nicola Bodini, Mike Optis, Julie K. Lundquist, Patrick Moriarty, Caroline Draxl, Avi Purkayastha, and Ethan Young
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 487–504, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-487-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-487-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper, we have assessed to which extent mesoscale numerical weather prediction models are more accurate than state-of-the-art reanalysis products in characterizing the wind resource at heights of interest for wind energy. The conclusions of our work will be of primary importance to the wind industry for recommending the best data sources for wind resource modeling.
Fan Mei, Steven Spielman, Susanne Hering, Jian Wang, Mikhail S. Pekour, Gregory Lewis, Beat Schmid, Jason Tomlinson, and Maynard Havlicek
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 7329–7340, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-7329-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-7329-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This study focuses on understanding a versatile water-based condensation particle counter (vWCPC 3789) performance under various ambient pressure conditions (500–1000 hPa). A vWCPC has the advantage of avoiding health and safety concerns. However, its performance characterization under low pressure is rare but crucial for ensuring successful airborne deployment. This paper provides advanced knowledge of operating a vWCPC 3789 to capture the spatial variations of atmospheric aerosols.
Nicola Bodini, Weiming Hu, Mike Optis, Guido Cervone, and Stefano Alessandrini
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 1363–1377, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1363-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1363-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We develop two machine-learning-based approaches to temporally extrapolate uncertainty in hub-height wind speed modeled by a numerical weather prediction model. We test our approaches in the California Outer Continental Shelf, where a significant offshore wind energy development is currently being planned, and we find that both provide accurate results.
Mithu Debnath, Paula Doubrawa, Mike Optis, Patrick Hawbecker, and Nicola Bodini
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 1043–1059, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1043-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1043-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
As the offshore wind industry emerges on the US East Coast, a comprehensive understanding of the wind resource – particularly extreme events – is vital to the industry's success. We leverage a year of data of two floating lidars to quantify and characterize the frequent occurrence of high-wind-shear and low-level-jet events, both of which will have a considerable impact on turbine operation. We find that almost 100 independent long events occur throughout the year.
Hannah Livingston, Nicola Bodini, and Julie K. Lundquist
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2021-68, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2021-68, 2021
Preprint withdrawn
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper, we assess whether hub-height turbulence can easily be quantified from either other hub-height variables or ground-level measurements in complex terrain. We find a large variability across the three considered locations when trying to model hub-height turbulence intensity and turbulence kinetic energy. Our results highlight the nonlinear and complex nature of atmospheric turbulence, so that more powerful techniques should instead be recommended to model hub-height turbulence.
Mike Optis, Nicola Bodini, Mithu Debnath, and Paula Doubrawa
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 935–948, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-935-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-935-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Offshore wind turbines are huge, with rotor blades soon to extend up to nearly 300 m. Accurate modeling of winds across these heights is crucial for accurate estimates of energy production. However, we lack sufficient observations at these heights but have plenty of near-surface observations. Here we show that a basic machine-learning model can provide very accurate estimates of winds in this area, and much better than conventional techniques.
Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Rob K. Newsom, Larry K. Berg, Heng Xiao, Po-Lun Ma, and David D. Turner
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 4403–4424, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-4403-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-4403-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Planetary boundary layer (PBL) height is a critical parameter in atmospheric models. Continuous PBL height measurements from remote sensing measurements are important to understand various boundary layer mechanisms, especially during daytime and evening transition periods. Due to several limitations in existing methodologies to detect PBL height from a Doppler lidar, in this study, a machine learning (ML) approach is tested. The ML model is observed to improve the accuracy by over 50 %.
Alayna Farrell, Jennifer King, Caroline Draxl, Rafael Mudafort, Nicholas Hamilton, Christopher J. Bay, Paul Fleming, and Eric Simley
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 737–758, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-737-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-737-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Most current wind turbine wake models struggle to accurately simulate spatially variant wind conditions at a low computational cost. In this paper, we present an adaptation of NREL's FLOw Redirection and Induction in Steady State (FLORIS) wake model, which calculates wake losses in a heterogeneous flow field using local weather measurement inputs. Two validation studies are presented where the adapted model consistently outperforms previous versions of FLORIS that simulated uniform flow only.
Maria A. Zawadowicz, Kaitlyn Suski, Jiumeng Liu, Mikhail Pekour, Jerome Fast, Fan Mei, Arthur J. Sedlacek, Stephen Springston, Yang Wang, Rahul A. Zaveri, Robert Wood, Jian Wang, and John E. Shilling
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 7983–8002, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7983-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7983-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This paper describes the results of a recent field campaign in the eastern North Atlantic, where two mass spectrometers were deployed aboard a research aircraft to measure the chemistry of aerosols and trace gases. Very clean conditions were found, dominated by local sulfate-rich acidic aerosol and very aged organics. Evidence of
long-range transport of aerosols from the continents was also identified.
Luis A. Martínez-Tossas, Jennifer King, Eliot Quon, Christopher J. Bay, Rafael Mudafort, Nicholas Hamilton, Michael F. Howland, and Paul A. Fleming
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 555–570, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-555-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-555-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper a three-dimensional steady-state solver for flow through a wind farm is developed and validated. The computational cost of the solver is on the order of seconds for large wind farms. The model is validated using high-fidelity simulations and SCADA.
Stefano Letizia, Lu Zhan, and Giacomo Valerio Iungo
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 2065–2093, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-2065-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-2065-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
A LiDAR Statistical Barnes Objective Analysis (LiSBOA) for the optimal design of lidar scans and retrieval of velocity statistics is proposed. The LiSBOA is validated and characterized via a Monte Carlo approach applied to a synthetic velocity field. The optimal design of lidar scans is formulated as a two-cost-function optimization problem, including the minimization of the volume not sampled with adequate spatial resolution and the minimization of the error on the mean of the velocity field.
Stefano Letizia, Lu Zhan, and Giacomo Valerio Iungo
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 2095–2113, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-2095-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-2095-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The LiDAR Statistical Barnes Objective Analysis (LiSBOA) is applied to lidar data collected in the wake of wind turbines to reconstruct mean wind speed and turbulence intensity. Various lidar scans performed during a field campaign for a wind farm in complex terrain are analyzed. The results endorse the application of the LiSBOA for lidar-based wind resource assessment and farm diagnosis.
Daniel Vassallo, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, and Harindra J. S. Fernando
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 295–309, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-295-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-295-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Machine learning is quickly becoming a commonly used technique for wind speed and power forecasting and is especially useful when combined with other forecasting techniques. This study utilizes a popular machine learning algorithm, random forest, in an attempt to predict the forecasting error of a statistical forecasting model. Various atmospheric characteristics are used as random forest inputs in an effort to discern the most useful atmospheric information for this purpose.
Caroline Draxl, Rochelle P. Worsnop, Geng Xia, Yelena Pichugina, Duli Chand, Julie K. Lundquist, Justin Sharp, Garrett Wedam, James M. Wilczak, and Larry K. Berg
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 45–60, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-45-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-45-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Mountain waves can create oscillations in low-level wind speeds and subsequently in the power output of wind plants. We document such oscillations by analyzing sodar and lidar observations, nacelle wind speeds, power observations, and Weather Research and Forecasting model simulations. This research describes how mountain waves form in the Columbia River basin and affect wind energy production and their impact on operational forecasting, wind plant layout, and integration of power into the grid.
Lu Zhan, Stefano Letizia, and Giacomo Valerio Iungo
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1601–1622, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1601-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1601-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Lidar measurements of wakes generated by isolated wind turbines are leveraged for optimal tuning of parameters of four engineering wake models. The lidar measurements are retrieved as ensemble averages of clustered data with incoming wind speed and turbulence intensity. It is shown that the optimally tuned wake models enable a significantly increased accuracy for predictions of wakes. The optimally tuned models are expected to enable generally enhanced performance for wind farms on flat terrain.
Nicola Bodini and Mike Optis
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1435–1448, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1435-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1435-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Calculations of annual energy production (AEP) and its uncertainty are critical for wind farm financial transactions. Standard industry practice assumes that different uncertainty categories within an AEP calculation are uncorrelated and can therefore be combined through a sum of squares approach. In this project, we show the limits of this assumption by performing operational AEP estimates for over 470 wind farms in the United States and propose a more accurate way to combine uncertainties.
Peter Brugger, Mithu Debnath, Andrew Scholbrock, Paul Fleming, Patrick Moriarty, Eric Simley, David Jager, Jason Roadman, Mark Murphy, Haohua Zong, and Fernando Porté-Agel
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1253–1272, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1253-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1253-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
A wind turbine can actively influence its wake by turning the rotor out of the wind direction to deflect the wake away from a downstream wind turbine. This technique was tested in a field experiment at a wind farm, where the inflow and wake were monitored with remote-sensing instruments for the wind speed. The behaviour of the wake deflection agrees with the predictions of two analytical models, and a bias of the wind direction perceived by the yawed wind turbine led to suboptimal power gains.
Nicola Bodini, Julie K. Lundquist, and Mike Optis
Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 4271–4285, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-4271-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-4271-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
While turbulence dissipation rate (ε) is an essential parameter for the prediction of wind speed, its current representation in weather prediction models is inaccurate, especially in complex terrain. In this study, we leverage the potential of machine-learning techniques to provide a more accurate representation of turbulence dissipation rate. Our results show a 30 % reduction in the average error compared to the current model representation of ε and a total elimination of its average bias.
Cited articles
Abkar, M. and Porté-Agel, F.: The effect of free-atmosphere stratification on boundary-layer flow and power output from very large wind farms, Energies, 6, 2338–2361, https://doi.org/10.3390/en6052338, 2013.
Abkar, M. and Porté-Agel, F.: Mean and turbulent kinetic energy budgets inside and above very large wind farms under conventionally-neutral condition, Renew. Energ., 70, 142–152, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.03.050, 2014.
Abkar, M. and Porté-Agel, F.: Influence of atmospheric stability on wind-turbine wakes: A large-eddy simulation study, Physics of fluids, 27, 035104, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4913695, 2015.
Ahsbahs, T., Nygaard, N. G., Newcombe, A., and Badger, M.: Wind farm wakes from SAR and Doppler radar, Remote Sens., 12, 462, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12030462, 2020.
Allaerts, D. and Meyers, J.: Boundary-layer development and gravity waves in conventionally neutral wind farms, J. Fluid Mech., 814, 95–130, https://doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2017.11, 2017.
Baidya Roy, S., Pacala, S. W., and Walko, R. L.: Can large wind farms affect local meteorology?, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 109, D19101, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD004763, 2004.
Banta, R. M., Pichugina, Y. L., Brewer, W. A., Lundquist, J. K., Kelley, N. D., Sandberg, S. P., Alvarez II, R. J., Hardesty, R. M., and Weickmann, A. M.: 3D volumetric analysis of wind turbine wake properties in the atmosphere using high-resolution Doppler lidar, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 32, 904–914, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-14-00078.1, 2015.
Barthelmie, R. J., Hansen, K. S., and Pryor, S. C.: Meteorological controls on wind turbine wakes, P. IEEE, 101, 1010–1019, https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2012.2204029, 2012.
Berg, L. K., Riihimaki, L. D., Qian, Y., Yan, H., and Huang, M.: The low-level jet over the southern Great Plains determined from observations and reanalyses and its impact on moisture transport, J. Climate, 28, 6682–6706, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00719.1, 2015.
Berg, L. K., Newsom, R. K., and Turner, D. D.: Year-long vertical velocity statistics derived from Doppler lidar data for the continental convective boundary layer, J. Appl. Meteorol. Clim., 56, 2441–2454, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-16-0359.1, 2017.
Blackadar, A. K.: Boundary layer wind maxima and their significance for the growth of nocturnal inversions, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 38, 283–290, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477-38.5.283, 1957.
Bodini, N., Lundquist, J. K., and Moriarty, P.: Wind plants can impact long-term local atmospheric conditions, Sci. Rep., 11, 22939, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02089-2, 2021.
Bonin, T. A., Choukulkar, A., Brewer, W. A., Sandberg, S. P., Weickmann, A. M., Pichugina, Y. L., Banta, R. M., Oncley, S. P., and Wolfe, D. E.: Evaluation of turbulence measurement techniques from a single Doppler lidar, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 10, 3021–3039, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-10-3021-2017, 2017.
Calaf, M., Parlange, M. B., and Meneveau, C.: Large eddy simulation study of scalar transport in fully developed wind-turbine array boundary layers, Phys. Fluids, 23, 126603, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3663376, 2011.
Carbone, R. E., Conway, J. W., Crook, N. A., and Moncrieff, M. W.: The generation and propagation of a nocturnal squall line. Part I: Observations and implications for mesoscale predictability, Mon. Weather Rev., 118, 26–49, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1990)118<0026:TGAPOA>2.0.CO;2, 1990.
Cook, D. R. and Sullivan, R. C.: Eddy Correlation Flux Measurement System (ECOR) Instrument Handbook, edited by: Robert Stafford, ARM user facility, DOE/SC-ARM/TR-052, https://doi.org/10.2172/1467448, 2020.
Davis, C. A., Manning, K. W., Carbone, R. E., Trier, S. B., and Tuttle, J. D.: Coherence of warm-season continental rainfall in numerical weather prediction models, Mon. Weather Rev., 131, 2667–2679, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2003)131<2667:COWCRI>2.0.CO;2, 2003.
Debnath, M., Moriarty, P., Krishnamurthy, R., Bodini, N., Newsom, R., Quon, E., Lundquist, J. K., Letizia, S., Iungo, V., and Klein, P.: Characterization of wind speed and directional shear at the AWAKEN field campaign site, J. Renew. Sustain. Ener., 15, 033308, https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0139737, 2023.
Djath, B. and Schulz-Stellenfleth, J.: Wind speed deficits downstream offshore wind parks – A new automised estimation technique based on satellite synthetic aperture radar data, Meteorol. Z., 28, 499–515, https://doi.org/10.1127/metz/2019/0992, 2019.
Djath, B., Schulz-Stellenfleth, J., and Cañadillas, B.: Impact of atmospheric stability on X-band and C-band Synthetic Aperture Radar imagery of offshore windpark wakes, Journal of Sustainable and Renewable Energy, 10, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5020437.
Draxl, C., Worsnop, R. P., Xia, G., Pichugina, Y., Chand, D., Lundquist, J. K., Sharp, J., Wedam, G., Wilczak, J. M., and Berg, L. K.: Mountain waves can impact wind power generation, Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 45–60, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-45-2021, 2021.
Eberhard, W. L., Cupp, R. E., and Healy, K. R.: Doppler lidar measurement of profiles of turbulence and momentum flux, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 6, 809–819, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1989)006<0809:DLMOPO>2.0.CO;2, 1989.
Fernando, H. J. S., Mann, J., Palma, J. M. L. M., Lundquist, J. K., Barthelmie, R. J., Belo-Pereira, M., Brown, W. O. J., Chow, F. K., Gerz, T., Hocut, C. M., Klein, P. M., Leo, L. S., Matos, J. C., Oncley, S. P., Pryor, S. C., Bariteau, L., Bell, T. M., Bodini, N., Carney, M. B., Courtney, M. S., Creegan, E. D., Dimitrova, R., Gomes, S., Hagen, M., Hyde, J. O., Kigle, S., Krishnamurthy, R., Lopes, J. C., Mazzaro, L., Neher, J. M. T., Menke, R., Murphy, P., Oswald, L., Otarola-Bustos, S., Pattantyus, A. K., Rodrigues, C. V., Schady, A., Sirin, N., Spuler, S., Svensson, E., Tomaszewski, J., Turner, D. D., van Veen, L., Vasiljević, N., Vassallo, D., Voss, S., Wildmann, N., and Wang, Y.: The Perdigão: The Perdigao: Peering into microscale details of mountain winds, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 100, 799–819, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-17-0227.1, 2019.
Frehlich, R.: Coherent Doppler lidar signal covariance including wind shear and wind turbulence, Appl. Opt., 33, 6472–6481, https://doi.org/10.1364/AO.33.006472, 1994.
Frehlich, R.: Estimation of velocity error for Doppler lidar measurements, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 18, 1628–1639, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2001)018<1628:EOVEFD>2.0.CO;2, 2001.
Frehlich, R. and Cornman, L.: Estimating spatial velocity statistics with coherent Doppler lidar, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 19, 355–366, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426-19.3.355, 2002.
Frehlich, R., Meillier, Y., Jensen, M. L., Balsley, B., and Sharman, R.: Measurements of boundary layer profiles in an urban environment, J. Appl. Meteorol. Clim., 45, 821–837, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAM2368.1, 2006
Fleming, P., King, J., Dykes, K., Simley, E., Roadman, J., Scholbrock, A., Murphy, P., Lundquist, J. K., Moriarty, P., Fleming, K., van Dam, J., Bay, C., Mudafort, R., Lopez, H., Skopek, J., Scott, M., Ryan, B., Guernsey, C., and Brake, D.: Initial results from a field campaign of wake steering applied at a commercial wind farm – Part 1, Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 273–285, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-273-2019, 2019.
Gadde, S. N. and Stevens, R. J.: Interaction between low-level jets and wind farms in a stable atmospheric boundary layer, Physical Review Fluids, 6, 014603, https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevFluids.6.014603, 2021.
Garratt, J. R.: The internal boundary layer – A review, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 50, 171–203, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00120524, 1990.
Geerts, B., Parsons, D., Ziegler, C. L., Weckwerth, T. M., Biggerstaff, M. I., Clark, R. D., Coniglio, M. C., Demoz, B. B., Ferrare, R. A., Gallus Jr., W. A., and Haghi, K.: The 2015 plains elevated convection at night field project, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 98, 767–786, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-15-00257.1, 2017.
Goring, D. G. and Nikora, V. I.: Despiking acoustic Doppler velocimeter data, J. Hydraul. Eng., 128, 117–126, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2002)128:1(117), 2002.
Hamilton, N.: Ceilometer, Wind Data Hub [data set], https://doi.org/10.21947/2221789, 2024.
Hansen, K. S., Barthelmie, R. J., Jensen, L. E., and Sommer, A.: The impact of turbulence intensity and atmospheric stability on power deficits due to wind turbine wakes at Horns Rev wind farm, Wind Energy, 15, 183–196, https://doi.org/10.1002/we.512, 2012.
Hirth, B. D., Schroeder, J. L., Gunter, W. S., and Guynes, J. G.: Measuring a utility-scale turbine wake using the TTUKa mobile research radars, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 29, 765–771, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-12-00039.1, 2012.
Kalverla, P. C., Duncan Jr., J. B., Steeneveld, G.-J., and Holtslag, A. A. M.: Low-level jets over the North Sea based on ERA5 and observations: together they do better, Wind Energ. Sci., 4, 193–209, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-4-193-2019, 2019.
Kotthaus, S., Bravo-Aranda, J. A., Collaud Coen, M., Guerrero-Rascado, J. L., Costa, M. J., Cimini, D., O'Connor, E. J., Hervo, M., Alados-Arboledas, L., Jiménez-Portaz, M., Mona, L., Ruffieux, D., Illingworth, A., and Haeffelin, M.: Atmospheric boundary layer height from ground-based remote sensing: a review of capabilities and limitations, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 433–479, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-433-2023, 2023.
Krishnamurthy, R., Calhoun, R., Billings, B., and Doyle, J.: Wind turbulence estimates in a valley by coherent Doppler lidar, Meteorol. Appl., 18, 361–371, https://doi.org/10.1002/met.263, 2011.
Krishnamurthy, R., Choukulkar, A., Calhoun, R., Fine, J., Oliver, A., and Barr, K.S.: Coherent Doppler lidar for wind farm characterization, Wind Energy, 16, 189–206, https://doi.org/10.1002/we.539, 2013.
Krishnamurthy, R., Reuder, J., Svardal, B., Fernando, H. J. S., and Jakobsen, J. B.: Offshore wind turbine wake characteristics using scanning Doppler lidar, Enrgy Proced., 137, 428–442, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.10.367, 2017.
Krishnamurthy, R., Newsom, R. K., Chand, D., and Shaw, W. J.: Boundary layer climatology at arm southern great plains (No. PNNL-30832), Pacific Northwest National Lab. (PNNL), Richland, WA, United States, https://doi.org/10.2172/1778833, 2021a.
Krishnamurthy, R., Newsom, R. K., Berg, L. K., Xiao, H., Ma, P.-L., and Turner, D. D.: On the estimation of boundary layer heights: a machine learning approach, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 4403–4424, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-4403-2021, 2021b.
Krishnamurthy, R., Fernando, H. J. S., Alappattu, D., Creegan, E., and Wang, Q.: Observations of offshore internal boundary layers, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 128, e2022JD037425, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JD037425, 2023.
Lampert, A., Bärfuss, K., Platis, A., Siedersleben, S., Djath, B., Cañadillas, B., Hunger, R., Hankers, R., Bitter, M., Feuerle, T., Schulz, H., Rausch, T., Angermann, M., Schwithal, A., Bange, J., Schulz-Stellenfleth, J., Neumann, T., and Emeis, S.: In situ airborne measurements of atmospheric and sea surface parameters related to offshore wind parks in the German Bight, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 12, 935–946, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-935-2020, 2020.
Liu, S. and Liang, X. Z.: Observed diurnal cycle climatology of planetary boundary layer height, J. Climate, 23, 5790–5809, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JCLI3552.1, 2010.
Lu, H. and Porté-Agel, F.: On the impact of wind farms on a convective atmospheric boundary layer, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 157, 81–96, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-015-0049-1, 2015.
Lundquist, J. K., DuVivier, K. K., Kaffine, D., and Tomaszewski, J. M.: Costs and consequences of wind turbine wake effects arising from uncoordinated wind energy development, Nature Energy, 4, 26–34, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-018-0281-2, 2019.
Maddox, R. A.: Mesoscale convective complexes, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 1374–1387, 1980.
Mann, J., Peña, A., Bingöl, F., Wagner, R., and Courtney, M. S.: Lidar scanning of momentum flux in and above the atmospheric surface layer, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 27, 959–976, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JTECHA1389.1, 2010.
Miller, L. M. and Keith, D. W.: Climatic impacts of wind power, Joule, 2, 2618–2632, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2018.09.009, 2018.
Moriarty, P., Bodini, N., Letizia, S., Abraham, A., Ashley, T., Bärfuss, K. B., Barthelmie, R. J., Brewer, A., Brugger, P., Feuerle, T., Frère, A., Goldberger, L., Gottschall, J., Hamilton, N., Herges, T., Hirth, B., Hung, L. Y., Iungo, G. V., Ivanov, H., Kaul, C., Kern, S., Klein, P., Krishnamurthy, R., Lampert, A., Lundquist, J. K., Morris, V. R., Newsom, R., Pekour, M., Pichugina, Y., Porté-Angel, F., Pryor, S. C., Scholbrock, A., Schroeder, J., Shartzer, S., Simley, E., Vöhringer, L., Wharton, S., and Zalkind, D.: Overview of preparation for the American WAKE ExperimeNt (AWAKEN), J. Renew. Sustain. Ener., 16, 053306, https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0141683, 2024.
Murphy, P., Lundquist, J. K., and Fleming, P.: How wind speed shear and directional veer affect the power production of a megawatt-scale operational wind turbine, Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1169–1190, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1169-2020, 2020.
Newsom, R. and Krishnamurthy, R.: Doppler Lidar Site A2, Wind Data Hub [data set], https://doi.org/10.21947/2283040, 2024a.
Newsom, R. and Krishnamurthy, R.: Doppler Lidar at Site H, Wind Data Hub [data set], https://doi.org/10.5439/1890922, 2024b.
Newsom, R. and Krishnamurthy, R.: Doppler Lidar (DLPPI2) Site A1 (S4) for AWAKEN, ARM Data Discovery [data set], https://doi.org/10.5439/1890922, 2024c.
Newsom, R. K. and Krishnamurthy, R.: Doppler Lidar (DL) instrument handbook (No. DOE/SC-ARM/TR-101), DOE Office of Science Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) User Facility, https://doi.org/10.2172/1034640, 2022.
Newsom, R. K., Brewer, W. A., Wilczak, J. M., Wolfe, D. E., Oncley, S. P., and Lundquist, J. K.: Validating precision estimates in horizontal wind measurements from a Doppler lidar, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 10, 1229–1240, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-10-1229-2017, 2017.
Pekour, M.: Sonic Anemometer, Wind Data Hub [data set],https://doi.org/10.21947/1899850, 2024.
Parsons, D. B., Lillo, S. P., Rattray, C. P., Bechtold, P., Rodwell, M. J., and Bruce, C. M.: The role of continental mesoscale convective systems in forecast busts within global weather prediction systems, Atmosphere, 10, 681, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10110681, 2019.
Peña, A., Hasager, C. B., Gryning, S.-E., Courtney, M., Antoniou, I., and Mikkelsen, T.: Offshore wind profiling using light detection and ranging measurements, Wind Energy, 12, 105–124, https://doi.org/10.1002/we.283, 2009.
Platis, A., Siedersleben, S. K., Bange, J., Lampert, A., Bärfuss, K., Hankers, R., Cañadillas, B., Foreman, R., Schulz-Stellenfleth, J., Djath, B., Neumann, T., and Emeis, S.: First in situ evidence of wakes in the far field behind offshore wind farms, Sci. Rep., 8, 2163, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-20389-y, 2018.
Pritchard, M. S., Moncrieff, M. W., and Somerville, R. C.: Orogenic propagating precipitation systems over the United States in a global climate model with embedded explicit convection, J. Atmos. Sci., 68, 1821–1840, https://doi.org/10.1175/2011JAS3699.1, 2011.
Rottman, J. W. and Simpson, J. E.: The formation of internal bores in the atmosphere: A laboratory model, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 115, 941–963, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49711548809, 1989.
Sathe, A., Mann, J., Vasiljevic, N., and Lea, G.: A six-beam method to measure turbulence statistics using ground-based wind lidars, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 8, 729–740, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-729-2015, 2015.
Schneemann, J., Rott, A., Dörenkämper, M., Steinfeld, G., and Kühn, M.: Cluster wakes impact on a far-distant offshore wind farm's power, Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 29–49, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-29-2020, 2020.
Shaw, W. J., Berg, L. K., Debnath, M., Deskos, G., Draxl, C., Ghate, V. P., Hasager, C. B., Kotamarthi, R., Mirocha, J. D., Muradyan, P., Pringle, W. J., Turner, D. D., and Wilczak, J. M.: Scientific challenges to characterizing the wind resource in the marine atmospheric boundary layer, Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2307–2334, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2307-2022, 2022.
Siedersleben, S. K., Lundquist, J. K., Platis, A., Bange, J., Bärfuss, K., Lampert, A., and Emeis, S.: Micrometeorological impacts of offshore wind farms as seen in observations and simulations, Environ. Res. Lett., 13, 124012, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaea0b, 2018.
Smalikho, I., Köpp, F., and Rahm, S.: Measurement of Atmospheric Turbulence by 2-μm Doppler Lidar, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 22, 1733–1747, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH1815.1, 2005.
Smalikho, I., Köpp, F., and Rahm, S.: Measurement of atmospheric turbulence by 2-µm Doppler lidar, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 22, 1733–1747, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH1815.1, 2015.
Smith, C. M., Barthelmie, R. J., and Pryor, S. C.: In situ observations of the influence of a large onshore wind farm on near-surface temperature, turbulence intensity and wind speed profiles, Environ. Res. Lett., 8, 034006, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/034006, 2013.
Song, J., Liao, K., Coulter, R. L., and Lesht, B. M.: Climatology of the low-level jet at the southern Great Plains atmospheric boundary layer experiments site, J. Appl. Meteorol. Clim., 44, 1593–1606, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAM2294.1, 2005.
Stevens, R. J.: Dependence of optimal wind turbine spacing on wind farm length, Wind energy, 19, 651–663, https://doi.org/10.1002/we.1857, 2016.
Stevens, R. J. and Meneveau, C.: Flow structure and turbulence in wind farms, Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., 49, 311–339, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-fluid-010816-060206, 2017.
Stull, R. B.: Boundary layer clouds, in: An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology, 545–585, Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, ISBN 13 978-90-277-2769-5, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-3027-8, 1988.
Syed, A. H., Mann, J., Platis, A., and Bange, J.: Turbulence structures and entrainment length scales in large offshore wind farms, Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 125–139, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-125-2023, 2023.
Taylor, P.: On wind and shear stress profiles above a change in surface roughness, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 95, 77–91, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49709540306, 1969.
Tucker, S. C., Senff, C. J., Weickmann, A. M., Brewer, W. A., Banta, R. M., Sandberg, S. P., Law, D. C., and Hardesty, R. M.: Doppler lidar estimation of mixing height using turbulence, shear, and aerosol profiles, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 26, 673–688, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JTECHA1157.1, 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy: A2E Wind Data Hub, https://www.a2e.energy.gov, last access: 31 October 2024.
Vanderwende, B. J., Lundquist, J. K., Rhodes, M. E., Takle, E. S., and Irvin, S. L.: Observing and simulating the summertime low-level jet in central Iowa, Mon. Weather Rev., 143, 2319–2336, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-14-00325.1, 2015.
VerHulst, C. and Meneveau, C.: Large eddy simulation study of the kinetic energy entrainment by energetic turbulent flow structures in large wind farms, Phys. Fluids, 26, 025113, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4865755, 2014.
Wang, D., Giangrande, S. E., Feng, Z., Hardin, J. C., and Prein, A. F.: Updraft and downdraft core size and intensity as revealed by radar wind profilers: MCS observations and idealized model comparisons, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 125, e2019JD031774, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JD031774, 2020.
Whiteman, C. D., Bian, X. and Zhong, S.: Low-level jet climatology from enhanced rawinsonde observations at a site in the southern Great Plains, J. Appl. Meteorol., 36, 1363–1376, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1997)036<1363:LLJCFE>2.0.CO;2, 1997.
Wilczak, J. M., Oncley, S. P., and Stage, S. A.: Sonic anemometer tilt correction algorithms, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 99, 127–150, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018966204465, 2001.
Wilczak, J. M., Stoelinga, M., Berg, L. K., Sharp, J., Draxl, C., McCaffrey, K., Banta, R. M., Bianco, L., Djalalova, I., Lundquist, J. K., Muradyan, P., Choukulkar, A., Leo, L., Bonin, T., Pichugina, Y., Eckman, R., Long, C. N., Lantz, K., Worsnop, R. P., Bickford, J., Bodini, N., Chand, D., Clifton, A., Cline, J., Cook, D. R., Fernando, H. J. S., Friedrich, K., Krishnamurthy, R., Marquis, M., McCaa, J., Olson, J. B., Otarola-Bustos, S., Scott, G., Shaw, W. J., Wharton, S., and White, A. B.: The second wind forecast improvement project (WFIP2): Observational field campaign, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 100, 1701–1723, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-18-0035.1, 2019.
Wildmann, N., Bodini, N., Lundquist, J. K., Bariteau, L., and Wagner, J.: Estimation of turbulence dissipation rate from Doppler wind lidars and in situ instrumentation for the Perdigão 2017 campaign, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 12, 6401–6423, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-12-6401-2019, 2019.
Willingham, D., Anderson, W., Christensen, K. T., and Barros, J. M.: Turbulent boundary layer flow over transverse aerodynamic roughness transitions: induced mixing and flow characterization, Phys. Fluids, 26, 025111, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4864105, 2014.
Yang, D., Meneveau, C., and Shen, L.: Large-eddy simulation of offshore wind farm, Phys. Fluids, 26, 025101, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4863096, 2014.
Zhan, L., Letizia, S., and Valerio Iungo, G.: LiDAR measurements for an onshore wind farm: Wake variability for different incoming wind speeds and atmospheric stability regimes, Wind Energy, 23, 501–527, https://doi.org/10.1002/we.2430, 2020.
Zhang, D., Comstock, J., and Morris, V.: Comparison of planetary boundary layer height from ceilometer with ARM radiosonde data, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 4735–4749, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-4735-2022, 2022.
Short summary
This study examines how atmospheric phenomena affect the recovery of wind farm wake – the disturbed air behind turbines. In regions like Oklahoma, where wind farms are often clustered, understanding wake recovery is crucial. We found that wind farms can alter phenomena like low-level jets, which are common in Oklahoma, by deflecting them above the wind farm. As a result, the impact of wakes can be observed up to 1–2 km above ground level.
This study examines how atmospheric phenomena affect the recovery of wind farm wake – the...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint