Articles | Volume 6, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-997-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-997-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
23 Jul 2021
Research article |
| 23 Jul 2021
| 23 Jul 2021
Correlations of power output fluctuations in an offshore wind farm using high-resolution SCADA data
Janna Kristina Seifert
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
ForWind, Institute of Physics, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Küpkersweg 70, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
Martin Kraft
ForWind, Institute of Physics, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Küpkersweg 70, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
Martin Kühn
ForWind, Institute of Physics, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Küpkersweg 70, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
Laura J. Lukassen
ForWind, Institute of Physics, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Küpkersweg 70, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
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Sinem Uluocak, Andreas Rott, Alfredo Peña, and Martin Kühn
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-825, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-825, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Atmospheric Measurement Techniques (AMT).
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Wind lidar turbulence measurements are limited by large probe volume of lidar, which attenuates turbulence scales smaller than the probe volume. This process is known as probe volume averaging. This wind tunnel study enabled an experimental investigation of probe volume averaging for the first time, using 32 distinct probe volumes over integral length scale ratios. The study demonstrated the capability of lidar to measure along-wind turbulence statistics.
Hugo Rubio, Ville Vakkari, Martin Kühn, and Julia Gottschall
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-50, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-50, 2026
Manuscript not accepted for further review
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Offshore wind farms need accurate wind data, but collecting measurements at sea is often difficult and expensive. In this study, we investigate how wind measurements from a lidar mounted on a moving ship can improve the accuracy of commonly used reanalysis datasets. Using a statistical correction method, we are able to reduce errors in wind speed estimates. This efficient approach can make offshore wind planning and resource assessment more reliable in areas where measurements are limited.
Johannes Paulsen, Gerald Steinfeld, Martin Kühn, and Martin Dörenkämper
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-23, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2026-23, 2026
Preprint under review for WES
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We investigated the potential benefits in wake development and power production of a new turbine concept with a low specific rating and low induction and compared it to a reference design with same rated power. Our results show that the design can strongly increase the AEP and shows especially strong benefits during doldrum events and in strongly cluster wake affected areas. While the inner farm wake wakes are strongly decreased by the new concept, the outer farm wakes are slightly stronger.
Daniel Ribnitzky, Vlaho Petrović, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 11, 469–491, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-469-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-469-2026, 2026
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We developed controllers for the Hybrid-Lambda Rotor, which enables two operating modes below rated power via different tip speed ratios, balancing load reduction and power output. A baseline controller with a model-based wind speed estimator, a load feedback controller and an inflow feed-forward controller were implemented on the MoWiTO 1.8 model turbine and tested in wind tunnel experiments. In depth scaling, considerations ensure the transferability of the results to the full-scale model.
Johannes Paulsen, Jörge Schneemann, Gerald Steinfeld, Frauke Theuer, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 11, 321–346, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-321-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-321-2026, 2026
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While low-level jets (LLJs) have been well characterised, their impact on offshore wind farms is not well understood. This study uses multi-elevation lidar scans to derive vertical wind profiles up to 350 m, detecting LLJs in up to 22.6 % of available measurements. Further, we analyse their effect on power conversion efficiency using operational wind farm data, observing a slightly negative influence and increased power fluctuations during LLJ events.
Astrid Lampert, Beatriz Cañadillas, Thomas Rausch, Lea Schmitt, Bughsin' Djath, Johannes Schulz-Stellenfleth, Andreas Platis, Kjell zum Berge, Ines Schäfer, Jens Bange, Thomas Neumann, Martin Dörenkämper, Bernhard Stoevesandt, Julia Gottschall, Lukas Vollmer, Stefan Emeis, Mares Barekzai, Simon Siedersleben, Martin Kühn, Gerald Steinfeld, Detlev Heinemann, Joachim Peinke, Hendrik Heißelmann, Jörge Schneemann, Gabriele Centurelli, Philipp Waldmann, and Konrad Bärfuss
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-277, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-277, 2026
Revised manuscript under review for WES
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Two major aircraft measurement campaigns above the North Sea provide insights into modifications of the wind field and sea surface induced by wind farms: The aircraft performed transects at hub height upstream and downstream of wind farm clusters, and identified different effects, e.g., how long it takes for the wind speed to recover after the wind farm, how changes across the coastline interact with wind energy, and if wind farms are well represented in numerical simulations.
David Onnen, Gunner Christian Larsen, Alan Wai Hou Lio, Paul Hulsman, Martin Kühn, and Vlaho Petrović
Wind Energ. Sci., 11, 175–193, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-175-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-11-175-2026, 2026
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Neighbouring wind turbines influence each other, as they leave a complex footprint of reduced wind speed and changed turbulence in the flow, called wake. Modern wind farm control sees the turbines as team players and aims to mitigate the negative effects of such interaction. To do so, the exact flow situation in the wind farm must be known. We show how to use wind turbines as sensors for waked inflow, test this in the field and compare it with independent laser measurements of the flow field.
Manuel Alejandro Zúñiga Inestroza, Paul Hulsman, Vlaho Petrović, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 2257–2278, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-2257-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-2257-2025, 2025
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Wake effects cause power losses that degrade wind farm efficiency. This paper presents a wind tunnel investigation of dynamic induction control (DIC), a strategy to mitigate wake losses by improving turbine–flow interactions. WindScanner lidar measurements are used to explore the wake development of model turbines in response to DIC. Our results demonstrate consistent benefits and adaptability under realistic inflow conditions, highlighting DIC’s potential to increase wind farm power production.
Hugo Rubio, Daniel Hatfield, Charlotte Bay Hasager, Martin Kühn, and Julia Gottschall
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 18, 4949–4968, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-4949-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-4949-2025, 2025
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Due to the scarcity of offshore in situ observations, alternative data sources are essential for a reliable understanding of offshore winds. Therefore, this study delves into the world of satellite remote sensing (ASCAT) and numerical models (ERA5), exploring their capabilities and limitations in characterising offshore winds. This investigation evaluates these two datasets against measurements from a floating ship-based lidar, collected during a novel measurement campaign in the Baltic Sea.
Arjun Anantharaman, Jörge Schneemann, Frauke Theuer, Laurent Beaudet, Valentin Bernard, Paul Deglaire, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1849–1867, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1849-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1849-2025, 2025
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The offshore wind farm sector is expanding rapidly, and the interactions between wind farms are important to analyse for both existing and planned wind farms. We developed a new methodology to quantify how much the reductions in wind speed behind a farm can affect the loads on turbines which are tens of kilometres downstream. We find a 2.5 % increase in the turbine loads and discuss how further measurements could add to the design standards of future wind farms.
Daniel Ribnitzky, Vlaho Petrović, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1329–1349, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1329-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1329-2025, 2025
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In this paper, the Hybrid-Lambda Rotor is scaled to wind tunnel size and validated in wind tunnel experiments. The objectives are to derive a scaling methodology, to investigate the influence of the steep gradients of axial induction along the blade span, and to characterize the near wake. The study reveals complex three-dimensional flow patterns for blade designs with non-uniform loading, and it can offer new inspirations when solving other scaling problems for complex wind turbine systems.
Frauke Theuer, Janna Kristina Seifert, Jörge Schneemann, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-141, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-141, 2024
Preprint under review for WES
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To be useful for end-users the forecast horizon of lidar-based minute-scale forecasts needs to be extended to at least 15 minutes. In this work, we adapt a lidar-based forecasting methodology to predict wind speed and power with horizons of up to 30 minutes. We found that the skill of the lidar-based approach highly depends on atmospheric conditions and the forecast characteristics. It was able to outperform persistence up to a 16 minute forecast horizon during unstable conditions.
Anantha Padmanabhan Kidambi Sekar, Paul Hulsman, Marijn Floris van Dooren, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1483–1505, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1483-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1483-2024, 2024
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We present induction zone measurements conducted with two synchronised lidars at a two-turbine wind farm. The induction zone flow was characterised for free, fully waked and partially waked flows. Due to the short turbine spacing, the lidars captured the interaction of the atmospheric boundary layer, induction zone and wake, evidenced by induction asymmetry and induction zone–wake interactions. The measurements will aid the process of further improving existing inflow and wake models.
Daniel Ribnitzky, Frederik Berger, Vlaho Petrović, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 359–383, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-359-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-359-2024, 2024
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This paper provides an innovative blade design methodology for offshore wind turbines with very large rotors compared to their rated power, which are tailored for an increased power feed-in at low wind speeds. Rather than designing the blade for a single optimized operational point, we include the application of peak shaving in the design process and introduce a design for two tip speed ratios. We describe how enlargement of the rotor diameter can be realized to improve the value of wind power.
Leo Höning, Laura J. Lukassen, Bernhard Stoevesandt, and Iván Herráez
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 203–218, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-203-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-203-2024, 2024
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This study analyzes the impact of wind turbine rotor blade flexibility on the aerodynamic loading of the blades and the consequential wind characteristics in the near wake of the turbine. It is shown that gravitation leads to rotational periodic fluctuations of blade loading, which directly impacts the trajectory of the blade tip vortex at different rotor blade positions while also resulting in a non-uniform wind velocity deficit in the wake of the wind turbine.
Andreas Rott, Leo Höning, Paul Hulsman, Laura J. Lukassen, Christof Moldenhauer, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1755–1770, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1755-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1755-2023, 2023
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This study examines wind vane measurements of commercial wind turbines and their impact on yaw control. The authors discovered that rotor interference can cause an overestimation of wind vane measurements, leading to overcorrection of the yaw controller. A correction function that improves the yaw behaviour is presented and validated in free-field experiments on a commercial wind turbine. This work provides new insights into wind direction measurements and suggests ways to optimize yaw control.
Balthazar Arnoldus Maria Sengers, Andreas Rott, Eric Simley, Michael Sinner, Gerald Steinfeld, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1693–1710, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1693-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1693-2023, 2023
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Unexpected wind direction changes are undesirable, especially when performing wake steering. This study explores whether the yaw controller can benefit from accessing wind direction information before a change reaches the turbine. Results from two models with different fidelities demonstrate that wake steering can indeed benefit from preview information.
Paul Hulsman, Luis A. Martínez-Tossas, Nicholas Hamilton, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-112, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-112, 2023
Manuscript not accepted for further review
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This paper presents an approach to analytically estimate the wake deficit within the near-wake region by modifying the curled wake model. This is done by incorporating a new initial condition at the rotor using an azimuth-dependent Gaussian profile, an adjusted turbulence model in the near-wake region and the far-wake region and an iterative process to determine the velocity field, while considering the relation of the pressure gradient and accounting the conservation of mass.
Khaled Yassin, Arne Helms, Daniela Moreno, Hassan Kassem, Leo Höning, and Laura J. Lukassen
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1133–1152, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1133-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1133-2023, 2023
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The current turbulent wind field models stated in the IEC 61400-1 standard underestimate the probability of extreme changes in wind velocity. This underestimation can lead to the false calculation of extreme and fatigue loads on the turbine. In this work, we are trying to apply a random time-mapping technique to one of the standard turbulence models to adapt to such extreme changes. The turbulent fields generated are compared with a standard wind field to show the effects of this new mapping.
Balthazar Arnoldus Maria Sengers, Gerald Steinfeld, Paul Hulsman, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 747–770, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-747-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-747-2023, 2023
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The optimal misalignment angles for wake steering are determined using wake models. Although mostly analytical, data-driven models have recently shown promising results. This study validates a previously proposed data-driven model with results from a field experiment using lidar measurements. In a comparison with a state-of-the-art analytical model, it shows systematically more accurate estimates of the available power. Also when using only commonly available input data, it gives good results.
Hugo Rubio, Martin Kühn, and Julia Gottschall
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2433–2455, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2433-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2433-2022, 2022
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A proper development of offshore wind farms requires the accurate description of atmospheric phenomena like low-level jets. In this study, we evaluate the capabilities and limitations of numerical models to characterize the main jets' properties in the southern Baltic Sea. For this, a comparison against ship-mounted lidar measurements from the NEWA Ferry Lidar Experiment has been implemented, allowing the investigation of the model's capabilities under different temporal and spatial constraints.
Frauke Theuer, Andreas Rott, Jörge Schneemann, Lueder von Bremen, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2099–2116, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2099-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2099-2022, 2022
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Remote-sensing-based approaches have shown potential for minute-scale forecasting and need to be further developed towards an operational use. In this work we extend a lidar-based forecast to an observer-based probabilistic power forecast by combining it with a SCADA-based method. We further aggregate individual turbine power using a copula approach. We found that the observer-based forecast benefits from combining lidar and SCADA data and can outperform persistence for unstable stratification.
Frederik Berger, Lars Neuhaus, David Onnen, Michael Hölling, Gerard Schepers, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1827–1846, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1827-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1827-2022, 2022
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We proof the dynamic inflow effect due to gusts in wind tunnel experiments with MoWiTO 1.8 in the large wind tunnel of ForWind – University of Oldenburg, where we created coherent gusts with an active grid. The effect is isolated in loads and rotor flow by comparison of a quasi-steady and a dynamic case. The observed effect is not caught by common dynamic inflow engineering models. An improvement to the Øye dynamic inflow model is proposed, matching experiment and corresponding FVWM simulations.
Balthazar Arnoldus Maria Sengers, Matthias Zech, Pim Jacobs, Gerald Steinfeld, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1455–1470, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1455-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1455-2022, 2022
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Wake steering aims to redirect the wake away from a downstream turbine. This study explores the potential of a data-driven surrogate model whose equations can be interpreted physically. It estimates wake characteristics from measurable input variables by utilizing a simple linear model. The model shows encouraging results in estimating available power in the far wake, with significant improvements over currently used analytical models in conditions where wake steering is deemed most effective.
Marijn Floris van Dooren, Anantha Padmanabhan Kidambi Sekar, Lars Neuhaus, Torben Mikkelsen, Michael Hölling, and Martin Kühn
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 1355–1372, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-1355-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-1355-2022, 2022
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The remote sensing technique lidar is widely used for wind speed measurements for both industrial and academic applications. Lidars can measure wind statistics accurately but cannot fully capture turbulent fluctuations in the high-frequency range, since they are partly filtered out. This paper therefore investigates the turbulence spectrum measured by a continuous-wave lidar and analytically models the lidar's measured spectrum with a Lorentzian filter function and a white noise term.
Sonja Krüger, Gerald Steinfeld, Martin Kraft, and Laura J. Lukassen
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 323–344, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-323-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-323-2022, 2022
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Detailed numerical simulations of turbines in atmospheric conditions are challenging with regard to their computational demand. We coupled an atmospheric flow model and a turbine model in order to deliver extensive details about the flow and the turbine response within reasonable computational time. A comparison to measurement data was performed and showed a very good agreement. The efficiency of the tool enables applications such as load calculation in wind farms or during low-level-jet events.
Andreas Rott, Jörge Schneemann, Frauke Theuer, Juan José Trujillo Quintero, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 283–297, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-283-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-283-2022, 2022
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We present three methods that can determine the alignment of a lidar placed on the transition piece of an offshore wind turbine based on measurements with the instrument: a practical implementation of hard targeting for north alignment, a method called sea surface levelling to determine the levelling of the system from water surface measurements, and a model that can determine the dynamic levelling based on the operating status of the wind turbine.
Paul Hulsman, Martin Wosnik, Vlaho Petrović, Michael Hölling, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 237–257, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-237-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-237-2022, 2022
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Due to the possibility of mapping the wake fast at multiple locations with the WindScanner, a thorough understanding of the development of the wake is acquired at different inflow conditions and operational conditions. The lidar velocity data and the energy dissipation rate compared favourably with hot-wire data from previous experiments, lending credibility to the measurement technique and methodology used here. This will aid the process to further improve existing wake models.
Frederik Berger, David Onnen, Gerard Schepers, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 1341–1361, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1341-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1341-2021, 2021
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Dynamic inflow denotes the unsteady aerodynamic response to fast changes in rotor loading and leads to load overshoots. We performed a pitch step experiment with MoWiTO 1.8 in the large wind tunnel of ForWind – University of Oldenburg. We measured axial and tangential inductions with a recent method with a 2D-LDA system and performed load and wake measurements. These radius-resolved measurements allow for new insights into the dynamic inflow phenomenon.
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Short summary
Fluctuations in the power output of wind turbines are one of the major challenges in the integration and utilisation of wind energy. By analysing the power output fluctuations of wind turbine pairs in an offshore wind farm, we show that their correlation depends on their location within the wind farm and their inflow. The main outcome is that these correlation dependencies can be characterised by statistics of the power output of the wind turbines and sorted by a clustering algorithm.
Fluctuations in the power output of wind turbines are one of the major challenges in the...
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