Articles | Volume 7, issue 5
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2003-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2003-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
12 Oct 2022
Research article |
| 12 Oct 2022
| 12 Oct 2022
Current status and grand challenges for small wind turbine technology
Alessandro Bianchini
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Department of Industrial Engineering, Università degli Studi di
Firenze, 50139 Florence, Italy
Small Wind Turbine Technical Committee, European Academy of Wind
Energy (EAWE), Oldenburg, Germany
Galih Bangga
Institute of Aerodynamics and Gas Dynamics, University of Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
Small Wind Turbine Technical Committee, European Academy of Wind
Energy (EAWE), Oldenburg, Germany
Ian Baring-Gould
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, Colorado 80401, USA
Alessandro Croce
Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Aerospaziali, Politecnico di
Milano, 20156 Milan, Italy
Small Wind Turbine Technical Committee, European Academy of Wind
Energy (EAWE), Oldenburg, Germany
José Ignacio Cruz
Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y
Tecnológicas (CIEMAT), 28040 Madrid, Spain
Rick Damiani
RRD Engineering, LLC, Arvada, Colorado 80007, USA
Gareth Erfort
Department of Mechanical & Mechatronic Engineering, Stellenbosch
University, 7602 Stellenbosch, South Africa
Small Wind Turbine Technical Committee, European Academy of Wind
Energy (EAWE), Oldenburg, Germany
Carlos Simao Ferreira
Delft University of Technology, Wind Energy, 2629HS Delft, the
Netherlands
Small Wind Turbine Technical Committee, European Academy of Wind
Energy (EAWE), Oldenburg, Germany
David Infield
Electronic and Electrical Engineering Department, University of Strathclyde, G11XW Glasgow, Scotland
Christian Navid Nayeri
Hermann-Föttinger-Institut, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany
Small Wind Turbine Technical Committee, European Academy of Wind
Energy (EAWE), Oldenburg, Germany
George Pechlivanoglou
Eunice Energy Group, 15125 Athens, Greece
Mark Runacres
Faculty of Engineering, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
Small Wind Turbine Technical Committee, European Academy of Wind
Energy (EAWE), Oldenburg, Germany
Gerard Schepers
TNO Energy Transition, 1755LE Petten, the Netherlands
Institute of Engineering, Hanze University of Applied Sciences, 9747AS Groningen, the Netherlands
Brent Summerville
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, Colorado 80401, USA
David Wood
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University
of Calgary, T2N1N4 Calgary, Canada
Alice Orrell
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, USA
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Wind turbines need to be simulated for thousands of hours to estimate design loads. Mid-fidelity numerical models are typically used for this task to strike a balance between computational cost and accuracy. The considerable displacements of floating wind turbines may be a challenge for some of these models. This paper enhances comprehension of how modeling theories affect floating wind turbine loads by comparing three codes across three turbines, simulated in a real environment.
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Preprint under review for WES
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The paper proposes a new model to include the effects of vortex generators in the fast aerodynamic force calculation methods used for rotor blade sectional load calculations. The model is derived from the effects of vortex generators on turbulent boundary layers. The new model is more accurate than existing models in predicting the parametric impact of various vortex generator geometries on the stall delay and lift increase effects on airfoil aerodynamic polars.
YuanTso Li, Wei Yu, Andrea Sciacchitano, and Carlos Ferreira
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 631–659, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-631-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-631-2025, 2025
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A novel wind farm concept, called a regenerative wind farm, is investigated numerically. This concept tackles the significant wake interaction losses among traditional wind farms. Our results show that regenerative wind farms can greatly reduce these losses, boosting power output per unit surface. Unlike traditional farms with three-bladed wind turbines, regenerative farms use multi-rotor systems with lifting devices (MRSLs). This unconventional design effectively reduces wake losses.
Sabrina Milani, Jessica Leoni, Stefano Cacciola, Alessandro Croce, and Mara Tanelli
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 497–510, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-497-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-497-2025, 2025
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In this paper, we propose a novel machine-learning framework for pitch misalignment detection in wind turbines. Using a minimal set of standard sensors, our method detects misalignments as small as 0.1° and localizes the affected blades. It combines signal processing with a hierarchical classification structure and linear regression for precise severity quantification. Evaluation results validate the approach, showing notable accuracy in misalignment classification, regression, and localization.
David Bensason, Andrea Sciacchitano, and Carlos Ferreira
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-3, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-3, 2025
Preprint under review for WES
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This study experimentally explores the wake of the novel X-Rotor vertical axis wind turbine. Passive blade pitch is used to favorably modify the wake topology and subsequent energy replenishment process. The results demonstrate significant increases in available power for downstream rotors and the underlying mechanisms, highlighting the potential of vertical-axis wind turbines and passive blade pitch control for high-energy-density wind farm applications.
Leonardo Pagamonci, Francesco Papi, Gabriel Cojocaru, Marco Belloli, and Alessandro Bianchini
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-169, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-169, 2025
Revised manuscript under review for WES
Short summary
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The study presents a critical analysis, using wind tunnel experiments and LES CFD simulations, aimed at quantifying to what extent turbulence affects the wake structures of a floating turbine undergoing large motions. Analyses show that, whenever realistic turbulence comes to play, only small gains in terms of wake recovery are noticed in FOWTs in comparison to bottom-fixed turbines, suggesting the absence of hypothesized superposition effects between inflow and platform motion.
David Bensason, Jayant Mulay, Andrea Sciacchitano, and Carlos Ferreira
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-177, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-177, 2025
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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The wake of a scaled vertical-axis wind turbine farm was measured, resulting in the first experimental database of 3D-resovled flowfield measurements. In addition to the baseline operating conditions, two modes of wake control were tested, which involve the passive adjustment of the rotors blade pitch. The results highlight the impacts of these modes adjustments on the trailing vorticity system, wake topology, and affinity towards increasing the rate of wake recovery throughout the farm.
Flavio Avila Correia Martins, Alexander van Zuijlen, and Carlos Simão Ferreira
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 41–58, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-41-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-41-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study examines regenerative wind farming with multirotor systems fitted with atmospheric boundary layer control (ABL-control) wings near the rotor's wake. These wings create vortices that boost vertical momentum transfer and speed up wake recovery. Results show that ABL-control wings can restore 95 % of wind power within six rotor diameters downstream, achieving a recovery rate nearly 10 times faster than that without ABL control.
Alessandro Fontanella, Alberto Fusetti, Stefano Cioni, Francesco Papi, Sara Muggiasca, Giacomo Persico, Vincenzo Dossena, Alessandro Bianchini, and Marco Belloli
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-140, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-140, 2024
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
Short summary
Short summary
The article investigates the impact of large movements allowed by floating wind turbine foundations on their aerodynamics and wake behavior. Wind tunnel tests with a model turbine reveal that platform motions affect wake patterns and turbulence levels. Insights from these experiments are crucial for optimizing large-scale floating wind farms. The dataset obtained from the experiment is published and can aid in developing simulation tools for floating wind turbines.
Erik Fritz, Koen Boorsma, and Carlos Ferreira
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1617–1629, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1617-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1617-2024, 2024
Short summary
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This study presents results from a wind tunnel experiment on a model wind turbine with swept blades, thus blades curved in the rotor plane. Using a non-intrusive measurement technique, the flow around the turbine blades was measured from which blade-level aerodynamics are derived in post-processing. The detailed experimental database gives insight into swept-blade aerodynamics and has great value in validating numerical tools, which aim at simulating swept wind turbine blades.
Alessandro Croce, Stefano Cacciola, and Federico Isella
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1211–1227, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1211-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1211-2024, 2024
Short summary
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For a few years now, various techniques have been studied to maximize the energy production of a wind farm, that is, from a system consisting of several wind turbines. These wind farm controller techniques are often analyzed individually and can generate loads higher than the design ones on the individual wind turbine. In this paper we study the simultaneous use of two different techniques with the goal of finding the optimal combination that at the same time preserves the design loads.
Erik Fritz, André Ribeiro, Koen Boorsma, and Carlos Ferreira
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1173–1187, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1173-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1173-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents results from a wind tunnel experiment on a model wind turbine. Using a non-intrusive measurement technique, the flow around the turbine blades was measured. In post-processing, the blade-level aerodynamics are derived from the measured flow fields. The detailed experimental database has great value in validating numerical tools of varying complexity, which aim at simulating wind turbine aerodynamics as accurately as possible.
Francesco Papi, Jason Jonkman, Amy Robertson, and Alessandro Bianchini
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1069–1088, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1069-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1069-2024, 2024
Short summary
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Blade element momentum (BEM) theory is the backbone of many industry-standard aerodynamic models. However, the analysis of floating offshore wind turbines (FOWTs) introduces new challenges, which could put BEM models to the test. This study systematically compares four aerodynamic models, ranging from BEM to computational fluid dynamics, in an attempt to shed light on the unsteady aerodynamic phenomena that are at stake in FOWTs and whether BEM is able to model them appropriately.
Francesco Papi, Giancarlo Troise, Robert Behrens de Luna, Joseph Saverin, Sebastian Perez-Becker, David Marten, Marie-Laure Ducasse, and Alessandro Bianchini
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 981–1004, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-981-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-981-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Wind turbines need to be simulated for thousands of hours to estimate design loads. Mid-fidelity numerical models are typically used for this task to strike a balance between computational cost and accuracy. The considerable displacements of floating wind turbines may be a challenge for some of these models. This paper enhances comprehension of how modeling theories affect floating wind turbine loads by comparing three codes across three turbines, simulated in a real environment.
Pier Francesco Melani, Omar Sherif Mohamed, Stefano Cioni, Francesco Balduzzi, and Alessandro Bianchini
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 601–622, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-601-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-601-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The actuator line method (ALM) is a powerful tool for wind turbine simulation but struggles to resolve tip effects. The reason is still unclear. To investigate this, we use advanced angle of attack sampling and vortex tracking techniques to analyze the flow around a NACA0018 finite wing, simulated with ALM and blade-resolved computational fluid dynamics. Results show that the ALM can account for tip effects if the correct angle of attack sampling and force projection strategies are adopted.
Robert Behrens de Luna, Sebastian Perez-Becker, Joseph Saverin, David Marten, Francesco Papi, Marie-Laure Ducasse, Félicien Bonnefoy, Alessandro Bianchini, and Christian-Oliver Paschereit
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 623–649, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-623-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-623-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
A novel hydrodynamic module of QBlade is validated on three floating offshore wind turbine concepts with experiments and two widely used simulation tools. Further, a recently proposed method to enhance the prediction of slowly varying drift forces is adopted and tested in varying met-ocean conditions. The hydrodynamic capability of QBlade matches the current state of the art and demonstrates significant improvement regarding the prediction of slowly varying drift forces with the enhanced model.
Adhyanth Giri Ajay, Laurence Morgan, Yan Wu, David Bretos, Aurelio Cascales, Oscar Pires, and Carlos Ferreira
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 453–470, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-453-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-453-2024, 2024
Short summary
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This paper compares six different numerical models to predict the performance of an X-shaped vertical-axis wind turbine, offering insights into how it works in 3D when its blades are fixed at specific angles. The results showed the 3D models here reliably predict the performance while still taking this turbine's complex aerodynamics into account compared to 2D models. Further, these blade angles caused more complexity in predicting the turbine's behaviour, which is highlighted in this paper.
Stefano Cioni, Francesco Papi, Leonardo Pagamonci, Alessandro Bianchini, Néstor Ramos-García, Georg Pirrung, Rémi Corniglion, Anaïs Lovera, Josean Galván, Ronan Boisard, Alessandro Fontanella, Paolo Schito, Alberto Zasso, Marco Belloli, Andrea Sanvito, Giacomo Persico, Lijun Zhang, Ye Li, Yarong Zhou, Simone Mancini, Koen Boorsma, Ricardo Amaral, Axelle Viré, Christian W. Schulz, Stefan Netzband, Rodrigo Soto-Valle, David Marten, Raquel Martín-San-Román, Pau Trubat, Climent Molins, Roger Bergua, Emmanuel Branlard, Jason Jonkman, and Amy Robertson
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1659–1691, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1659-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1659-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Simulations of different fidelities made by the participants of the OC6 project Phase III are compared to wind tunnel wake measurements on a floating wind turbine. Results in the near wake confirm that simulations and experiments tend to diverge from the expected linearized quasi-steady behavior when the reduced frequency exceeds 0.5. In the far wake, the impact of platform motion is overestimated by simulations and even seems to be oriented to the generation of a wake less prone to dissipation.
Filippo Trevisi, Carlo E. D. Riboldi, and Alessandro Croce
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1639–1650, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1639-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1639-2023, 2023
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The power equations of crosswind Ground-Gen and Fly-Gen airborne wind energy systems (AWESs) are refined to include the contribution from the aerodynamic wake. A novel power coefficient is defined by normalizing the aerodynamic power with the wind power passing through a disk with a radius equal to the AWES wingspan, allowing us to compare systems with different wingspans. Ground-Gen and Fly-Gen AWESs are compared in terms of their aerodynamic power potential.
Paul Veers, Carlo L. Bottasso, Lance Manuel, Jonathan Naughton, Lucy Pao, Joshua Paquette, Amy Robertson, Michael Robinson, Shreyas Ananthan, Thanasis Barlas, Alessandro Bianchini, Henrik Bredmose, Sergio González Horcas, Jonathan Keller, Helge Aagaard Madsen, James Manwell, Patrick Moriarty, Stephen Nolet, and Jennifer Rinker
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1071–1131, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1071-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1071-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Critical unknowns in the design, manufacturing, and operation of future wind turbine and wind plant systems are articulated, and key research activities are recommended.
Filippo Trevisi, Carlo E. D. Riboldi, and Alessandro Croce
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 999–1016, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-999-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-999-2023, 2023
Short summary
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Modeling the aerodynamic wake of airborne wind energy systems (AWESs) is crucial to properly estimating power production and to designing such systems. The velocities induced at the AWES from its own wake are studied with a model for the near wake and one for the far wake, using vortex methods. The model is validated with the lifting-line free-vortex wake method implemented in QBlade.
Ram C. Poudel, David Corbus, and Ian Baring-Gould
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-45, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-45, 2023
Revised manuscript not accepted
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We propose a new method to synthesize 1 Hz wind speed and wind power time series data from the industry standard 10-minute wind turbine performance data. The method is based on a parameterized power spectral density (PSD) function decomposed into trend and random components. We illustrate the intra-timestep data synthesis utilizing 1 Hz data from two distributed wind turbines.
André F. P. Ribeiro, Damiano Casalino, and Carlos S. Ferreira
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 661–675, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-661-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-661-2023, 2023
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Floating offshore wind turbines move due to not having a rigid foundation. Hence, as the blades rotate they experience more complex aerodynamics than standard onshore wind turbines. In this paper, we show computational simulations of a wind turbine rotor moving in various ways and quantify the effects of the motion in the forces acting on the blades. We show that these forces behave in nonlinear ways in some cases.
Roger Bergua, Amy Robertson, Jason Jonkman, Emmanuel Branlard, Alessandro Fontanella, Marco Belloli, Paolo Schito, Alberto Zasso, Giacomo Persico, Andrea Sanvito, Ervin Amet, Cédric Brun, Guillén Campaña-Alonso, Raquel Martín-San-Román, Ruolin Cai, Jifeng Cai, Quan Qian, Wen Maoshi, Alec Beardsell, Georg Pirrung, Néstor Ramos-García, Wei Shi, Jie Fu, Rémi Corniglion, Anaïs Lovera, Josean Galván, Tor Anders Nygaard, Carlos Renan dos Santos, Philippe Gilbert, Pierre-Antoine Joulin, Frédéric Blondel, Eelco Frickel, Peng Chen, Zhiqiang Hu, Ronan Boisard, Kutay Yilmazlar, Alessandro Croce, Violette Harnois, Lijun Zhang, Ye Li, Ander Aristondo, Iñigo Mendikoa Alonso, Simone Mancini, Koen Boorsma, Feike Savenije, David Marten, Rodrigo Soto-Valle, Christian W. Schulz, Stefan Netzband, Alessandro Bianchini, Francesco Papi, Stefano Cioni, Pau Trubat, Daniel Alarcon, Climent Molins, Marion Cormier, Konstantin Brüker, Thorsten Lutz, Qing Xiao, Zhongsheng Deng, Florence Haudin, and Akhilesh Goveas
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 465–485, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-465-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-465-2023, 2023
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This work examines if the motion experienced by an offshore floating wind turbine can significantly affect the rotor performance. It was observed that the system motion results in variations in the load, but these variations are not critical, and the current simulation tools capture the physics properly. Interestingly, variations in the rotor speed or the blade pitch angle can have a larger impact than the system motion itself.
Koen Boorsma, Gerard Schepers, Helge Aagard Madsen, Georg Pirrung, Niels Sørensen, Galih Bangga, Manfred Imiela, Christian Grinderslev, Alexander Meyer Forsting, Wen Zhong Shen, Alessandro Croce, Stefano Cacciola, Alois Peter Schaffarczyk, Brandon Lobo, Frederic Blondel, Philippe Gilbert, Ronan Boisard, Leo Höning, Luca Greco, Claudio Testa, Emmanuel Branlard, Jason Jonkman, and Ganesh Vijayakumar
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 211–230, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-211-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-211-2023, 2023
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Within the framework of the fourth phase of the International Energy Agency's (IEA) Wind Task 29, a large comparison exercise between measurements and aeroelastic simulations has been carried out. Results were obtained from more than 19 simulation tools of various fidelity, originating from 12 institutes and compared to state-of-the-art field measurements. The result is a unique insight into the current status and accuracy of rotor aerodynamic modeling.
Simone Mancini, Koen Boorsma, Gerard Schepers, and Feike Savenije
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 193–210, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-193-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-193-2023, 2023
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Modern wind turbines are subject to complex wind conditions that are far from the hypothesis of steady uniform inflow at the core of blade element momentum methods (the current industry standard for wind turbine design). Various corrections have been proposed to model this complexity. The present work focuses on modelling the unsteady evolution of wind turbine wakes (dynamic inflow), comparing the different corrections available and highlighting their effects on design load predictions.
Kisorthman Vimalakanthan, Harald van der Mijle Meijer, Iana Bakhmet, and Gerard Schepers
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 41–69, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-41-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-41-2023, 2023
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Leading edge erosion (LEE) is one of the most critical degradation mechanisms that occur with wind turbine blades. A detailed understanding of the LEE process and the impact on aerodynamic performance due to the damaged leading edge is required to optimize blade maintenance. Providing accurate modeling tools is therefore essential. This novel study assesses CFD approaches for modeling high-resolution scanned LE surfaces from an actual blade with LEE damages.
Paul Veers, Katherine Dykes, Sukanta Basu, Alessandro Bianchini, Andrew Clifton, Peter Green, Hannele Holttinen, Lena Kitzing, Branko Kosovic, Julie K. Lundquist, Johan Meyers, Mark O'Malley, William J. Shaw, and Bethany Straw
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2491–2496, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2491-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2491-2022, 2022
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Wind energy will play a central role in the transition of our energy system to a carbon-free future. However, many underlying scientific issues remain to be resolved before wind can be deployed in the locations and applications needed for such large-scale ambitions. The Grand Challenges are the gaps in the science left behind during the rapid growth of wind energy. This article explains the breadth of the unfinished business and introduces 10 articles that detail the research needs.
Filippo Trevisi, Iván Castro-Fernández, Gregorio Pasquinelli, Carlo Emanuele Dionigi Riboldi, and Alessandro Croce
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2039–2058, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2039-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2039-2022, 2022
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The optimal control problem for the flight trajectories of Fly-Gen AWESs is expressed with a novel methodology in the frequency domain through a harmonic balance formulation. The solution gives the optimal trajectory and the optimal control inputs. Optimal trajectories have a circular shape squashed along the vertical direction, and the optimal control inputs can be modeled with only one or two harmonics. Analytical approximations for optimal trajectory characteristics are also given.
Frederik Berger, Lars Neuhaus, David Onnen, Michael Hölling, Gerard Schepers, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1827–1846, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1827-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1827-2022, 2022
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We proof the dynamic inflow effect due to gusts in wind tunnel experiments with MoWiTO 1.8 in the large wind tunnel of ForWind – University of Oldenburg, where we created coherent gusts with an active grid. The effect is isolated in loads and rotor flow by comparison of a quasi-steady and a dynamic case. The observed effect is not caught by common dynamic inflow engineering models. An improvement to the Øye dynamic inflow model is proposed, matching experiment and corresponding FVWM simulations.
Narges Golmirzaee and David H. Wood
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2022-76, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2022-76, 2022
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This study shows the importance of wind turbine blades' wake vorticity, which is ignored in blade-element momentum analysis. We derive a relation between the wake vorticity and blade element drag and demonstrate that the circulation in the wake of a blade element is partly determined by its drag. Also, we find that the airfoil assumption, which is that the elements behave as airfoils, is conservative; the lift:drag ratio of cascade elements is greater than that of the corresponding airfoils.
Benjamin Anderson and Edward Baring-Gould
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1753–1769, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1753-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1753-2022, 2022
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Our article proposes an easy-to-integrate wind turbine control module which mitigates wind turbine fault conditions and sends predictive information to the grid operator, all while maximizing power production. This gives the grid operator more time to react to faults with its dispatch decisions, easing the transition between different generators. This study aims to illustrate the controller’s functionality under various types of faults and highlight potential wind turbine and grid benefits.
Daan van der Hoek, Joeri Frederik, Ming Huang, Fulvio Scarano, Carlos Simao Ferreira, and Jan-Willem van Wingerden
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1305–1320, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1305-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1305-2022, 2022
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The paper presents a wind tunnel experiment where dynamic induction control was implemented on a small-scale turbine. By periodically changing the pitch angle of the blades, the low-velocity turbine wake is perturbed, and hence it recovers at a faster rate. Small particles were released in the flow and subsequently recorded with a set of high-speed cameras. This allowed us to reconstruct the flow behind the turbine and investigate the effect of dynamic induction control on the wake.
Jörg Alber, Marinos Manolesos, Guido Weinzierl-Dlugosch, Johannes Fischer, Alexander Schönmeier, Christian Navid Nayeri, Christian Oliver Paschereit, Joachim Twele, Jens Fortmann, Pier Francesco Melani, and Alessandro Bianchini
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 943–965, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-943-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-943-2022, 2022
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This paper investigates the potentials and the limitations of mini Gurney flaps and their combination with vortex generators for improved rotor blade performance of wind turbines. These small passive add-ons are installed in order to increase the annual energy production by mitigating the effects of both early separation toward the root region and surface erosion toward the tip region of the blade. As such, this study contributes to the reliable and long-term generation of renewable energy.
Benjamin Sanderse, Vinit V. Dighe, Koen Boorsma, and Gerard Schepers
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 759–781, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-759-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-759-2022, 2022
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An accurate prediction of loads and power of an offshore wind turbine is needed for an optimal design. However, such predictions are typically performed with engineering models that contain many inaccuracies and uncertainties. In this paper we have proposed a systematic approach to quantify and calibrate these uncertainties based on two experimental datasets. The calibrated models are much closer to the experimental data and are equipped with an estimate of the uncertainty in the predictions.
Lindsay M. Sheridan, Caleb Phillips, Alice C. Orrell, Larry K. Berg, Heidi Tinnesand, Raj K. Rai, Sagi Zisman, Dmitry Duplyakin, and Julia E. Flaherty
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 659–676, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-659-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-659-2022, 2022
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The small wind community relies on simplified wind models and energy production simulation tools to obtain energy generation expectations. We gathered actual wind speed and turbine production data across the US to test the accuracy of models and tools for small wind turbines. This study provides small wind installers and owners with the error metrics and sources of error associated with using models and tools to make performance estimates, empowering them to adjust expectations accordingly.
Rodrigo Soto-Valle, Stefano Cioni, Sirko Bartholomay, Marinos Manolesos, Christian Navid Nayeri, Alessandro Bianchini, and Christian Oliver Paschereit
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 585–602, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-585-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-585-2022, 2022
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This paper compares different vortex identification methods to evaluate their suitability to study the tip vortices of a wind turbine. The assessment is done through experimental data from the wake of a wind turbine model. Results show comparability in some aspects as well as significant differences, providing evidence to justify further comparisons. Therefore, this study proves that the selection of the most suitable postprocessing methods of tip vortex data is pivotal to ensure robust results.
Carlos Ferreira, Wei Yu, Arianna Sala, and Axelle Viré
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 469–485, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-469-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-469-2022, 2022
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Floating offshore wind turbines may experience large surge motions that, when faster than the local wind speed, cause rotor–wake interaction.
We derive a model which is able to predict the wind speed at the wind turbine, even for large and fast motions and load variations in the wind turbine.
The proposed dynamic inflow model includes an adaptation for highly loaded flow, and it is accurate and simple enough to be easily implemented in most blade element momentum design models.
Emmanuel Branlard, Ian Brownstein, Benjamin Strom, Jason Jonkman, Scott Dana, and Edward Ian Baring-Gould
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 455–467, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-455-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-455-2022, 2022
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In this work, we present an aerodynamic tool that can model an arbitrary collections of wings, blades, rotors, and towers. With these functionalities, the tool can be used to study and design advanced wind energy concepts, such as horizontal-axis wind turbines, vertical-axis wind turbines, kites, or multi-rotors. This article describes the key features of the tool and presents multiple applications. Field measurements of horizontal- and vertical-axis wind turbines are used for comparison.
Alessandro Croce, Stefano Cacciola, and Luca Sartori
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1–17, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1-2022, 2022
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In recent years, research has focused on the development of wind farm controllers with the aim of minimizing interactions between machines and thus improving the production of the wind farm.
In this work we have analyzed the effects of these recent technologies on a single wind turbine, with the aim of understanding the impact of these controllers on the design of the machine itself.
The analyses have shown there are non-negligible effects on some components of the wind turbine.
David H. Wood and Eric J. Limacher
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 1413–1425, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1413-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1413-2021, 2021
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The airflow through a wind turbine must expand as it goes through the blades for them to extract energy from the wind. Expansion has not been properly incorporated in wind turbine aerodynamics. We show that the conventional equation for wind turbine thrust becomes inaccurate when the expansion is maximized to achieve maximum power, and expansion reduces power by around 6 %. We formulate equations for the disturbance of the external flow and show that this is maximized at the rotor plane.
Frederik Berger, David Onnen, Gerard Schepers, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 1341–1361, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1341-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1341-2021, 2021
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Dynamic inflow denotes the unsteady aerodynamic response to fast changes in rotor loading and leads to load overshoots. We performed a pitch step experiment with MoWiTO 1.8 in the large wind tunnel of ForWind – University of Oldenburg. We measured axial and tangential inductions with a recent method with a 2D-LDA system and performed load and wake measurements. These radius-resolved measurements allow for new insights into the dynamic inflow phenomenon.
Gerard Schepers, Pim van Dorp, Remco Verzijlbergh, Peter Baas, and Harmen Jonker
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 983–996, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-983-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-983-2021, 2021
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In this article the aeroelastic loads on a 10 MW turbine in response to unconventional wind conditions selected from a year-long large-eddy simulation on a site at the North Sea are evaluated. Thereto an assessment is made of the practical importance of these wind conditions within an aeroelastic context based on high-fidelity wind modelling. Moreover the accuracy of BEM-based methods for modelling such wind conditions is assessed.
Sirko Bartholomay, Tom T. B. Wester, Sebastian Perez-Becker, Simon Konze, Christian Menzel, Michael Hölling, Axel Spickenheuer, Joachim Peinke, Christian N. Nayeri, Christian Oliver Paschereit, and Kilian Oberleithner
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 221–245, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-221-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-221-2021, 2021
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This paper presents two methods on how to estimate the lift force that is created by a wing. These methods were experimentally assessed in a wind tunnel. Furthermore, an active trailing-edge flap, as seen on airplanes for example, is used to alleviate fluctuating loads that are created within the employed wind tunnel. Thereby, an active flow control device that can potentially serve on wind turbines to lower fatigue or lower the material used for the blades is examined.
Eric J. Limacher and David H. Wood
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 191–201, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-191-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-191-2021, 2021
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This paper describes a new analysis of wind turbine thrust based on removing pressure from the equations for the wind flow through a wind turbine rotor. We show that the equation is free from the effects of flow expansion that must accompany the slowing down of the wind through the blades as they extract the kinetic energy. The conditions under which the assumptions are used in blade-element analysis, which is fundamental for wind turbine aerodynamics, are made clear for the first time.
Giorgia Guma, Galih Bangga, Thorsten Lutz, and Ewald Krämer
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 93–110, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-93-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-93-2021, 2021
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With the increase in installed wind capacity, the rotor diameter of wind turbines is becoming larger and larger, and therefore it is necessary to take aeroelasticity into consideration. At the same time, wind turbines are in reality subjected to atmospheric inflow leading to high wind instabilities and fluctuations. Within this work, a high-fidelity chain is used to analyze the effects of both by the use of models of the same turbine with increasing complexity and technical details.
Rodrigo Soto-Valle, Sirko Bartholomay, Jörg Alber, Marinos Manolesos, Christian Navid Nayeri, and Christian Oliver Paschereit
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1771–1792, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1771-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1771-2020, 2020
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In this paper, a method to determine the angle of attack on a wind turbine rotor blade using a chordwise pressure distribution measurement was applied. The approach used a reduced number of pressure tap data located close to the blade leading edge. The results were compared with the measurements from three external probes mounted on the blade at different radial positions and with analytical calculations.
Jörg Alber, Rodrigo Soto-Valle, Marinos Manolesos, Sirko Bartholomay, Christian Navid Nayeri, Marvin Schönlau, Christian Menzel, Christian Oliver Paschereit, Joachim Twele, and Jens Fortmann
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1645–1662, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1645-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1645-2020, 2020
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The aerodynamic impact of Gurney flaps is investigated on the rotor blades of the Berlin Research Turbine. The findings of this research project contribute to performance improvements of different-size rotor blades. Gurney flaps are considered a worthwhile passive flow-control device in order to alleviate the adverse effects of both early separation in the inner blade region and leading-edge erosion throughout large parts of the blade span.
Galih Bangga, Thorsten Lutz, and Matthias Arnold
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1037–1058, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1037-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1037-2020, 2020
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Robust and accurate dynamic stall modeling remains one of the most difficult tasks in wind turbine load calculations despite its long research effort in the past. The present paper describes a new
second-order dynamic stall model for wind turbine airfoils. The new model is robust and improves the prediction for the aerodynamic forces and their higher-harmonic effects due to vortex shedding but also provides improved predictions for pitching moment and drag.
Sebastian Perez-Becker, Francesco Papi, Joseph Saverin, David Marten, Alessandro Bianchini, and Christian Oliver Paschereit
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 721–743, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-721-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-721-2020, 2020
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Aeroelastic design load calculations play a key role in determining the design loads of the different wind turbine components. This study compares load estimations from calculations using a Blade Element Momentum aerodynamic model with estimations from calculations using a higher-order Lifting-Line Free Vortex Wake aerodynamic model. The paper finds and explains the differences in fatigue and extreme turbine loads for power production simulations that cover a wide range of turbulent wind speeds.
Niels Adema, Menno Kloosterman, and Gerard Schepers
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 577–590, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-577-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-577-2020, 2020
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It is crucial to model dynamic stall accurately to reduce inaccuracies in predicting fatigue and extreme loads. This paper investigates a new dynamic stall model. Improvements are proposed based on experiments. The updated model shows significant improvements over the initial model; however, further validation and research are still required. This updated model might be incorporated into future wind turbine design codes and will hopefully reduce inaccuracies in predicted wind turbine loads.
Joeri Alexis Frederik, Robin Weber, Stefano Cacciola, Filippo Campagnolo, Alessandro Croce, Carlo Bottasso, and Jan-Willem van Wingerden
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 245–257, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-245-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-245-2020, 2020
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The interaction between wind turbines in a wind farm through their wakes is a widely studied research area. Until recently, research was focused on finding constant turbine inputs that optimize the performance of the wind farm. However, recent studies have shown that time-varying, dynamic inputs might be more beneficial. In this paper, the validity of this approach is further investigated by implementing it in scaled wind tunnel experiments and assessing load effects, showing promising results.
Krzysztof Rogowski, Martin Otto Laver Hansen, and Galih Bangga
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2019-98, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2019-98, 2019
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I believe that this article contains many valuable tips for engineers that can be useful when constructing medium size vertical-axis wind turbines. Currently, there is still a lack of research on large and medium rotors.
Annette Claudia Klein, Sirko Bartholomay, David Marten, Thorsten Lutz, George Pechlivanoglou, Christian Navid Nayeri, Christian Oliver Paschereit, and Ewald Krämer
Wind Energ. Sci., 3, 439–460, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-439-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-439-2018, 2018
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The paper describes the experimental and numerical investigation of a model wind turbine with a diameter of 3.0 m in a narrow wind tunnel. The objectives of the study are the provision of validation data, the comparison and evaluation of methods of different fidelity, and the assessment of the influence of wind tunnel walls. It turned out that the accordance between the experimental and numerical results is good, but the wind tunnel walls have to be taken into account for the present setup.
David H. Wood
Wind Energ. Sci., 3, 345–352, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-345-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-3-345-2018, 2018
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The vortices in the wakes of wind turbines are often approximated by short, straight vortex segments, which cannot reproduce the curvature singularity in the induced velocity. They can also have a second error due to the periodicity: the vortices return to close proximity of the point at which the velocity is calculated. The second error is assessed by representing the far wake of a turbine as a row of vortex rings. The error is quantified and a simple correction is developed.
Matthew Lennie, David Marten, George Pechlivanoglou, Christian Navid Nayeri, and Christian Oliver Paschereit
Wind Energ. Sci., 2, 671–683, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2-671-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2-671-2017, 2017
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Floating platform wind turbines present a challenge for engineers to simulate. This paper explores some better methods for simulating the aerodynamics of wind turbines as they move about on a floating platform. We also derived a new way of investigating whether the aerodynamics of the wind turbine rotor help it stay stable.
Eva Jost, Annette Fischer, Galih Bangga, Thorsten Lutz, and Ewald Krämer
Wind Energ. Sci., 2, 241–256, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2-241-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2-241-2017, 2017
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Trailing edge flaps applied to the outer part of a wind turbine rotor blade are a very promising concept to reduce fatigue loads as they are able to increase or decrease the airfoil lift for a given angle of attack. They have been widely researched on 2-D airfoils, but only little is known about their aerodynamic characteristics on 3-D wind turbine rotor blades. The present article addresses this issue.
Carlo L. Bottasso, Alessandro Croce, Federico Gualdoni, Pierluigi Montinari, and Carlo E. D. Riboldi
Wind Energ. Sci., 1, 297–310, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-1-297-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-1-297-2016, 2016
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The paper discusses different concepts for reducing loads on wind turbines using movable blade tips. Passive and semi-passive tip solutions move freely in response to air load fluctuations, while in the active case an actuator drives the tip motion in response to load measurements. The various solutions are compared with a standard blade and with each other in terms of their ability to reduce both fatigue and extreme loads.
Pietro Bortolotti, Carlo L. Bottasso, and Alessandro Croce
Wind Energ. Sci., 1, 71–88, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-1-71-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-1-71-2016, 2016
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The paper presents a new method to conduct the holistic optimization of a wind turbine. The proposed approach allows one to define the rotor radius and tower height, while simultaneously performing the detailed sizing of rotor and tower. For the rotor, the procedures perform simultaneously the design both from the aerodynamic and structural points of view. The overall optimization seeks a minimum for the cost of energy, while accounting for a wide range of user-defined design constraints.
G. A. M. van Kuik, J. Peinke, R. Nijssen, D. Lekou, J. Mann, J. N. Sørensen, C. Ferreira, J. W. van Wingerden, D. Schlipf, P. Gebraad, H. Polinder, A. Abrahamsen, G. J. W. van Bussel, J. D. Sørensen, P. Tavner, C. L. Bottasso, M. Muskulus, D. Matha, H. J. Lindeboom, S. Degraer, O. Kramer, S. Lehnhoff, M. Sonnenschein, P. E. Sørensen, R. W. Künneke, P. E. Morthorst, and K. Skytte
Wind Energ. Sci., 1, 1–39, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-1-1-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-1-1-2016, 2016
Related subject area
Thematic area: Wind technologies | Topic: Design concepts and methods for plants, turbines, and components
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Impacts of wind field characteristics and non-steady deterministic wind events on time-varying main-bearing loads
Muhammad Farhan, Ronald Schneider, Sebastian Thöns, and Max Gündel
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 461–481, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-461-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-461-2025, 2025
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This paper presents a probabilistic cost model for inspection and maintenance (I&M) of turbine support structures in offshore wind farms. It provides the basis for decision-theoretical optimization of I&M strategies and accounts for uncertainties in the costs. The model can be used to optimize I&M strategies at the component, structural system, and wind farm level. Additionally, a simplified method is provided for I&M optimization for individual turbine support structures.
Linqing Luo, Unai Gutierrez Santiago, and Yuxin Wu
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-1, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-1, 2025
Revised manuscript under review for WES
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We introduced a new method to monitor wind turbine gearboxes using distributed fiber optic technology. By attaching a single optical fiber to the gearbox, we tracked strain changes at high resolution, capturing gear movement, torque, and temperature in real time. This study demonstrated the link between torque and strain, enabling early fault detection. The approach offers a cost-effective way to improve gearbox reliability and reduce downtime, supporting more sustainable wind energy operations.
David Cubillas, Mireia Olave, Iñigo Llavori, Ibai Ulacia, Jon Larrañaga, Aitor Zurutuza, and Arkaitz Lopez
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 401–415, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-401-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-401-2025, 2025
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A methodology for evaluating fretting in wind turbine pitch bearing raceways is presented, and a case study is evaluated. The methodology considers the coupled effects of radial fretting and rotational fretting. As result, critical locations based on the dissipated energy are identified for the different wind speeds and the contributions of operational and non-operational times, as well as the prediction of damage shapes on the raceway for both cases, are evaluated independently and compared.
Laurence Morgan, Abbas Kazemi Amiri, William Leithead, and James Carroll
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 381–399, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-381-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-381-2025, 2025
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This paper presents a systematic study of the effect of blade inclination angle, chord distribution, and blade length on vertical-axis wind turbine performance. It shows that, for rotors of identical power production, both blade volume and rotor torque can be significantly reduced through the use of aerodynamically optimised inclined rotor blades. This demonstrates the potential of vertical rotors to reduce the cost of energy for offshore wind when compared to horizontal rotors.
Tahir H. Malik and Christian Bak
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 269–291, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-269-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-269-2025, 2025
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This research integrates custom sensors into wind turbine simulation models for improved performance monitoring utilising a turbine performance integral (TPI) method developed here. Real-world data validation demonstrates that appropriate sensor selection improves wind turbine performance monitoring. This approach addresses the need for precise performance assessments in the evolving wind energy sector, ultimately promoting sustainability and efficiency.
Tahir H. Malik and Christian Bak
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 227–243, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-227-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-227-2025, 2025
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This study investigates how wind turbine blades damaged by erosion, along with changing wind conditions, affect power output. Even minor blade damage can lead to significant energy losses, especially in turbulent winds. Using simulations, it was discovered that standard power data analysis methods, including time averaging, can hide these losses. This research highlights the need for better blade damage detection and careful wind data analysis to optimise wind farm performance.
Unai Gutierrez Santiago, Aemilius A. W. van Vondelen, Alfredo Fernández Sisón, Henk Polinder, and Jan-Willem van Wingerden
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 207–225, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-207-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-207-2025, 2025
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Knowing the loads applied to wind turbine gearboxes throughout their service life is becoming increasingly important as maintaining reliability with higher torque density demands is proving to be challenging. Operational deflection shapes identified from fiber-optic strain measurements have enabled the estimation of input torque, improving the assessment of the consumed life. Tracking operational deflection shapes recursively over time can potentially be used as an indicator of fault detection.
Jane Lockshin, Paula Pérez, Slater Podgorny, Michaela Sizemore, Paritosh Das, Jeffrey D. Laurence-Chasen, Paul Crook, and Caleb Phillips
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-147, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-147, 2024
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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This study examines the potential for distributed wind energy across the contiguous United States by leveraging a novel modeling approach that utilizes a high-resolution dataset and analyzes over 150 million parcels. Modeling results reveal substantial opportunities for energy generation using distributed wind technologies. Additionally, findings reveal a substantial increase from prior modeling results in estimated technical and economic potential for distributed wind.
Paul Malisani, Tristan Bartement, and Pauline Bozonnet
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-118, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-118, 2024
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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Maritime authorities often impose turbine alignment constraints on developers to secure the navigation of boats within the wind farm, potentially creating substantial wake losses. The proposed contribution is a new Wind Farm Layout Optimization (WFLO) algorithm that considers these constraints. The proposed method optimizes the grid-alignment parameters and the turbines' location on this grid. We illustrate the algorithm's performances on a challenging example.
Kenneth Brown, Pietro Bortolotti, Emmanuel Branlard, Mayank Chetan, Scott Dana, Nathaniel deVelder, Paula Doubrawa, Nicholas Hamilton, Hristo Ivanov, Jason Jonkman, Christopher Kelley, and Daniel Zalkind
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1791–1810, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1791-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1791-2024, 2024
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This paper presents a study of the popular wind turbine design tool OpenFAST. We compare simulation results to measurements obtained from a 2.8 MW land-based wind turbine. Measured wind conditions were used to generate turbulent flow fields through several techniques. We show that successful validation of the tool is not strongly dependent on the inflow generation technique used for mean quantities of interest. The type of inflow assimilation method has a larger effect on fatigue quantities.
Hongkun Zhang, Paula Weidinger, Christian Mester, Zihang Song, Marcel Heller, Alexander Dubowik, Bernd Tegtmeier, and Karin Eustorgi
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-70, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-70, 2024
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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Drivetrain efficiency is a wind turbine’s fundamental behaviour in the energy conversion. To determine the efficiency, input and output powers need to be measured with sufficient accuracy. However, this is a very challenging task due to high complexity and lack of proper calibrated torque measurement. In cooperation with the German and Swiss national metrology institutes, the efficiency determination with state-of-the art instrumentations is demonstrated here with test processes and results.
Fiona Dominique Lüdecke, Martin Schmid, and Po Wen Cheng
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1527–1545, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1527-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1527-2024, 2024
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Large direct-drive wind turbines, with a multi-megawatt power rating, face design challenges. Moving towards a more system-oriented design approach could potentially reduce mass and costs. Exploiting the full design space, though, may invoke interaction mechanisms, which have been neglected in the past. Based on coupled simulations, this work derives a better understanding of the electro-mechanical interaction mechanisms and identifies potential for design relevance.
Jenna Iori, Carlo Luigi Bottasso, and Michael Kenneth McWilliam
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1289–1304, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1289-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1289-2024, 2024
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The controller of a wind turbine has an important role in regulating power production and avoiding structural failure. However, it is often designed after the rest of the turbine, and thus its potential is not fully exploited. An alternative is to design the structure and the controller simultaneously. This work develops a method to identify if a given turbine design can benefit from this new simultaneous design process. For example, a higher and cheaper turbine tower can be built this way.
Andrea Gamberini, Thanasis Barlas, Alejandro Gomez Gonzalez, and Helge Aagaard Madsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1229–1249, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1229-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1229-2024, 2024
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Movable surfaces on wind turbine (WT) blades, called active flaps, can reduce the cost of wind energy. However, they still need extensive testing. This study shows that the computer model used to design a WT with flaps aligns well with measurements obtained from a 3month test on a commercial WT featuring a prototype flap. Particularly during flap actuation, there were minimal differences between simulated and measured data. These findings assure the reliability of WT designs incorporating flaps.
Ruben Borgers, Marieke Dirksen, Ine L. Wijnant, Andrew Stepek, Ad Stoffelen, Naveed Akhtar, Jérôme Neirynck, Jonas Van de Walle, Johan Meyers, and Nicole P. M. van Lipzig
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 697–719, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-697-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-697-2024, 2024
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Wind farms at sea are becoming more densely clustered, which means that next to individual wind turbines interfering with each other in a single wind farm also interference between wind farms becomes important. Using a climate model, this study shows that the efficiency of wind farm clusters and the interference between the wind farms in the cluster depend strongly on the properties of the individual wind farms and are also highly sensitive to the spacing between the wind farms.
Javier Criado Risco, Rafael Valotta Rodrigues, Mikkel Friis-Møller, Julian Quick, Mads Mølgaard Pedersen, and Pierre-Elouan Réthoré
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 585–600, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-585-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-585-2024, 2024
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Wind energy developers frequently have to face some spatial restrictions at the time of designing a new wind farm due to different reasons, such as the existence of protected natural areas around the wind farm location, fishing routes, and the presence of buildings. Wind farm design has to account for these restricted areas, but sometimes this is not straightforward to achieve. We have developed a methodology that allows for different inclusion and exclusion areas in the optimization framework.
Amalia Ida Hietanen, Thor Heine Snedker, Katherine Dykes, and Ilmas Bayati
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 417–438, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-417-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-417-2024, 2024
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The layout of a floating offshore wind farm was optimized to maximize the relative net present value (NPV). By modeling power generation, losses, inter-array cables, anchors and operational costs, an increase of EUR 34.5 million in relative NPV compared to grid-based layouts was achieved. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to examine the impact of economic factors, providing valuable insights. This study contributes to enhancing the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of floating wind farms.
Daniel Ribnitzky, Frederik Berger, Vlaho Petrović, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 359–383, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-359-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-359-2024, 2024
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This paper provides an innovative blade design methodology for offshore wind turbines with very large rotors compared to their rated power, which are tailored for an increased power feed-in at low wind speeds. Rather than designing the blade for a single optimized operational point, we include the application of peak shaving in the design process and introduce a design for two tip speed ratios. We describe how enlargement of the rotor diameter can be realized to improve the value of wind power.
Rafael Valotta Rodrigues, Mads Mølgaard Pedersen, Jens Peter Schøler, Julian Quick, and Pierre-Elouan Réthoré
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 321–341, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-321-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-321-2024, 2024
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The use of wind energy has been growing over the last few decades, and further increase is predicted. As the wind energy industry is starting to consider larger wind farms, the existing numerical methods for analysis of small and medium wind farms need to be improved. In this article, we have explored different strategies to tackle the problem in a feasible and timely way. The final product is a set of recommendations when carrying out trade-off analysis on large wind farms.
Aiguo Zhou, Jinlei Shi, Tao Dong, Yi Ma, and Zhenhui Weng
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 49–64, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-49-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-49-2024, 2024
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This paper explores the nonlinear influence of the virtual mass mechanism on the test system in blade biaxial tests. The blade theory and simulation model are established to reveal the nonlinear amplitude–frequency characteristics of the blade-virtual-mass system. Increasing the amplitude of the blade or decreasing the seesaw length will lower the resonance frequency and load of the system. The virtual mass also affects the blade biaxial trajectory.
Xiaodong Zhang and Nikolay Dimitrov
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1613–1623, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1613-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1613-2023, 2023
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Wind turbine extreme response estimation based on statistical extrapolation necessitates using a small number of simulations to calculate a low exceedance probability. This is a challenging task especially if we require small prediction error. We propose the use of a Gaussian mixture model as it is capable of estimating a low exceedance probability with minor bias error, even with limited simulation data, having flexibility in modeling the distributions of varying response variables.
Arne Bartschat, Karsten Behnke, and Matthias Stammler
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1495–1510, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1495-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1495-2023, 2023
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Blade bearings are among the most stressed and challenging components of a wind turbine. Experimental investigations using different test rigs and real-size blade bearings have been able to show that rather short time intervals of only several hours of turbine operation can cause wear damage on the raceways of blade bearings. The proposed methods can be used to assess wear-critical operation conditions and to validate control strategies as well as lubricants for the application.
Juan-Andrés Pérez-Rúa, Mathias Stolpe, and Nicolaos Antonio Cutululis
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1453–1473, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1453-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1453-2023, 2023
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With the challenges of ensuring secure energy supplies and meeting climate targets, wind energy is on course to become the cornerstone of decarbonized energy systems. This work proposes a new method to optimize wind farms by means of smartly placing wind turbines within a given project area, leading to more green-energy generation. This method performs satisfactorily compared to state-of-the-art approaches in terms of the resultant annual energy production and other high-level metrics.
Andrew P. J. Stanley, Christopher J. Bay, and Paul Fleming
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1341–1350, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1341-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1341-2023, 2023
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Better wind farms can be built by simultaneously optimizing turbine locations and control, which is currently impossible or extremely challenging because of the size of the problem. The authors present a method to determine optimal wind farm control as a function of the turbine locations, which enables turbine layout and control to be optimized together by drastically reducing the size of the problem. In an example, a wind farm's performance improves by 0.8 % when optimized with the new method.
Maaike Sickler, Bart Ummels, Michiel Zaaijer, Roland Schmehl, and Katherine Dykes
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1225–1233, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1225-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1225-2023, 2023
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This paper investigates the effect of wind farm layout on the performance of offshore wind farms. A regular farm layout is compared to optimised irregular layouts. The irregular layouts have higher annual energy production, and the power production is less sensitive to wind direction. However, turbine towers require thicker walls to counteract increased fatigue due to increased turbulence levels in the farm. The study shows that layout optimisation can be used to maintain high-yield performance.
Nicholas Peters, Christopher Silva, and John Ekaterinaris
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1201–1223, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1201-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1201-2023, 2023
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Wind turbines have increasingly been leveraged as a viable approach for obtaining renewable energy. As such, it is essential that engineers have a high-fidelity, low-cost approach to modeling rotor load distributions. In this study, such an approach is proposed. This modeling approach was shown to make high-fidelity predictions at a low computational cost for rotor distributed-pressure loads as rotor geometry varied, allowing for an optimization of the rotor to be completed.
Paul Veers, Carlo L. Bottasso, Lance Manuel, Jonathan Naughton, Lucy Pao, Joshua Paquette, Amy Robertson, Michael Robinson, Shreyas Ananthan, Thanasis Barlas, Alessandro Bianchini, Henrik Bredmose, Sergio González Horcas, Jonathan Keller, Helge Aagaard Madsen, James Manwell, Patrick Moriarty, Stephen Nolet, and Jennifer Rinker
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1071–1131, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1071-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1071-2023, 2023
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Critical unknowns in the design, manufacturing, and operation of future wind turbine and wind plant systems are articulated, and key research activities are recommended.
Kisorthman Vimalakanthan, Harald van der Mijle Meijer, Iana Bakhmet, and Gerard Schepers
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 41–69, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-41-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-41-2023, 2023
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Leading edge erosion (LEE) is one of the most critical degradation mechanisms that occur with wind turbine blades. A detailed understanding of the LEE process and the impact on aerodynamic performance due to the damaged leading edge is required to optimize blade maintenance. Providing accurate modeling tools is therefore essential. This novel study assesses CFD approaches for modeling high-resolution scanned LE surfaces from an actual blade with LEE damages.
Paul Veers, Katherine Dykes, Sukanta Basu, Alessandro Bianchini, Andrew Clifton, Peter Green, Hannele Holttinen, Lena Kitzing, Branko Kosovic, Julie K. Lundquist, Johan Meyers, Mark O'Malley, William J. Shaw, and Bethany Straw
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2491–2496, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2491-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2491-2022, 2022
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Wind energy will play a central role in the transition of our energy system to a carbon-free future. However, many underlying scientific issues remain to be resolved before wind can be deployed in the locations and applications needed for such large-scale ambitions. The Grand Challenges are the gaps in the science left behind during the rapid growth of wind energy. This article explains the breadth of the unfinished business and introduces 10 articles that detail the research needs.
Mads H. Aa. Madsen, Frederik Zahle, Sergio González Horcas, Thanasis K. Barlas, and Niels N. Sørensen
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1471–1501, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1471-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1471-2022, 2022
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This work presents a shape optimization framework based on computational fluid dynamics. The design framework is used to optimize wind turbine blade tips for maximum power increase while avoiding that extra loading is incurred. The final results are shown to align well with related literature. The resulting tip shape could be mounted on already installed wind turbines as a sleeve-like solution or be conceived as part of a modular blade with tips designed for site-specific conditions.
Edward Hart, Adam Stock, George Elderfield, Robin Elliott, James Brasseur, Jonathan Keller, Yi Guo, and Wooyong Song
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1209–1226, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1209-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1209-2022, 2022
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We consider characteristics and drivers of loads experienced by wind turbine main bearings using simplified models of hub and main-bearing configurations. Influences of deterministic wind characteristics are investigated for 5, 7.5, and 10 MW turbine models. Load response to gusts and wind direction changes are also considered. Cubic load scaling is observed, veer is identified as an important driver of load fluctuations, and strong links between control and main-bearing load response are shown.
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The paper is part of the Grand Challenges Papers for Wind Energy. It provides a status of small wind turbine technology in terms of technical maturity, diffusion, and cost. Then, five grand challenges that are thought to be key to fostering the development of the technology are proposed. To tackle these challenges, a series of unknowns and gaps are first identified and discussed. Improvement areas are highlighted, within which 10 key enabling actions are finally proposed to the wind community.
The paper is part of the Grand Challenges Papers for Wind Energy. It provides a status of small...
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